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SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 


A  SERIES  OF 


PRACTICAL  TALKS 


"WITH  PAKMERS. 


WALDO   F.  BROWN. 


SECOND   EDITION. 


PUBLISHED  BY 
R.     S.     THOMPSON, 


COPYRIGHT,  1881,  BY  R.  S.  THOMPSON. 


DEDICATIOIS^. 

To  my  friend,  S.  H.  Ellis,  who  is  not  only  a  success- 
ful farmer,  but  whose  words  and  influence  have  stimu- 
lated thousands  of  farmers  in  their  efforts  to  achieve 
true  success,  this  book  is  respectfully^  dedicated. 

WALDO  F.  BROWN. 


^l^n 


PUBLISHEK'S  PREFACE. 

It  has  given  me  pleasure  to  be  able  to  present  this 
book  to  the  Agriculturists  of  this  country,  I  have  seen 
the  great  need  of  some  practical  book  suited  to  practi- 
cal farmers  in  our  central  and  western  states. 

The  majority  of  the  agricultural  books  that  have  here- 
tofore been  published,  have  been  designed  for  the  few 
who  already  have  made  the  business  a  matter  of  scien- 
tific study,  rather  than  for  the  many  who  have  been 
deprived  of  these  advantages. 

In  looking  about  for  a  man  who  should  write  this 
book,  which  I  intended  should  be  the  book  for  the 
people,  I  could  think  of  no  person  more  suited  for  the 
task  than  my  friend  and  co-laborer,  Waldo  F.  Brown. 

He  has  had  a  long,  practical  experience  on  the  farm. 
Unaided  t^'  rich  friends  or  college  preparation,  he  has 
had  to  fight  his  own  way  through  life.  He  has  met  the 
difficulties  that  beset  the  farmer,  and  has  learned  by  ex- 
perience just  what  are  the  needs  of  his  brother  farmers 
and  can  talk  to  them  in  their  own  way. 

Probably  of  all  the  agricultural  writers  of  the  country 
there  are  none  who  have  a  higher  reputation  for  plain, 
practical  writing,  than  Mr.  Brown. 

The  manuscript  of  the  book  I  have  carefully  read,  and 
in  places  have  added  as  foot  notes,  points  I  thought  had 
been  omitted,  or  on  which  I  disagreed.  I  send  the  book 
out  to  the  world,  hoping  that  it  may  lead  many  of  our 
people  to  not  only  greater  success  in  farming,  but  also 
to  greater  success  in  living. 

R.  S.  Thompson,  Publisher, 


INTEODUCTIOSr. 

For  nine  jGurs  I  have  been  constantly  before  the 
public  as  a  writer,  having  in  that  time  written  more  than 
a  thousand  articles  for  the  Agricultural  Press.  The 
kind  reception  which  has  been  given  to  these  articles, 
whether  appearing  over  my  own  name  or  any  of  those 
with  which  I  have  at  times  concealed  my  identity,  such 
as  "Waldo,"  "Odlaw,"  "Agricola,"  "Solomon  Smith," 
"Squire  Bung,"  &c.,  has  led  me  to  believe  that  some  of 
my  thoughts  and  experiences,  in  more  systematic  order 
and  in  a  form  better  suited  for  preservation,  would  be 
welcomed  by  man}'. 

During  seven  j^ears  past  I  have  been  much  in  the  field 
as  an  agricultural  lecturer  at  fairs  and  farmers'  picnics, 
and  have  been  gratified  by  learning  from  many  of  those 
I  met,  that  my  articles  have  often  proved  helpful  to  them 
in  overcoming  the  difficulties  that  beset  the  farmers  and 
aiding  them  to  greater  success  in  the  management  of 
their  farms.  All  my  mature  life  having  been  spent 
upon  the  farm,  and  believing  as  I  do  that  the  life  of  a 
farmer  gives  full  scope  for  the  best  powers  of  the  best 
men,  I  have  no  higher  ambition  and  ask  no  greater 
reward,  than  to  be  able  to  help  my  co-laborers  to  attaint 
"  Success  in  Farming." 

Waldo  F.  Brown, 

East  View  Farm, 

Oxford,  Ohio* 


COiSTTBi^TS. 

CHAP.  PAGE, 

What  Constitutes  Success  on  the  Farm i  9 

Selection  of  the  Farm ii  12 

Management in  17 

Farm  Buildings iv  22 

Fencing v  32 

Drainage vi  42 

Fertilization vii  54 

Home-made  Manures vii  55 

Green  Manuring  . , vii  59 

Commercial  Manures vii  62 

Pulverization vii  67 

Rotation  of  Crops vii  70 

My  Own  Experience vii  79 

Hired  Help viii  82 

Farm  Implements ix  87 

Wheat X  93 

Corn XI  110 

Grasses xii  121 

Clover XIII  128 

Potatoes XIV  139 

Sweet  Potatoes xiv  144 

Rye  on  the  Farm xv  149 

Special  Crops xvi  152 

Fruit  on  the  Farm xvii  161 

The  Vegetable  Garden xviii  169 

Stock  on  the  Farm xix  176 

Hogs  on  the  Farm xix  183 

Dairying xix  197 

Sheep  Farming xix  205 

Poultry  for  Profit xix  218 

Timber  Growing  . xx  223 

Country  Homes xxi  229 

Woman's  Work  on  the  Farm xxi  253 


r 


SUCCESS  IN  PARMIISra 


CHAPTER  I 


WHAT     CONSTITUTES     SUCCESS     UPON    THB 
FARM. 

That  Peter  Poverty  is  a  miserable  failure  as  a  farmer, 
requires  no  argument  to  show,  for  a  glance  reveals  it. 
There  is  a  general  appearance  of  "run-down-ness"  about 
his  premises.  His  buildings,  stock  and  crops,  show 
that  the  expressive  Yankee  adjective  "shiftless"  fits 
him.  Let  us  be  thankful  that  he  is  not  as  "numerous" 
as  formerly,  and  that  his  children  are  not  likely  to  folloi^ 
his  calling.  We  will  pass  him  by  after  mentioning  his 
greatest  value.  He  is  a  splendid  example  of  "  how  not 
to  do  it" 

Let  me  next  introduce  you  to  Sam  Skinsoil.  He  is  an 
enterprising  man  with  a  strong  head  of  steam,  and  as 
much  business  to  the  square  inch  as  a  railroad  contrac- 
tor. He  has  made  money,  too,  but  he  has  taken  the 
cream  off  from  a  half  score  of  farms  during  a  third  of  a 
century.  His  plan  has  been  to  rent  a  farm  for  two  or 
three  years,  plow  every   available  foot   of  it,  get  all  he 


10  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

could  from  the  soil  and  return  nothing.  Or  he  would 
buy  a  farm,  cut  off  all  the  timber,  reduce  its  fertility , 
and  then  sell  and  move  on.  He  can  be  tracked  as  easily 
as  a  hurricane.  He,  likewise,  is  not  a  success,  and  we 
can  pass  on. 

William  Wealth}-  is  the  next  neighbor.  He  has  six 
hundred  acres  of  land,  all  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation, 
his  stock  is  well  bred  and  well  fed,  his  land  productive, 
and  buildings  commodious.  This  begins  to  look  like 
success,  but  before  you  pronounce  it  such  let  me  give 
you  his  history  : 

He  is  seventy  years  old,  and  although  you  can  see  at 
a  glance  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  it,  he  works  harder 
than  any  day  laborer  in  his  employ.  Money  making 
has  become  a  passion  with  him.  He  has  not  been  a  hun- 
dred miles  away  in  twenty  3-ears.  His  home  is  destitute 
of  books,  and  he  takes  but  one  paper  and  that  a  violent 
partizan  sheet,  the  organ  of  his  party.  Agricultural 
books  and  papers  he  despises.  A  flower  is  to  him  a 
weed,  and  he  is  like  Holland's  "Old Daniel  Gray,"  who 
"  could  see  naught  but  vanity  in  beaut^^  and  only  weak- 
ness in  a  fond  caress." 

He  has  become  merely  an  automaton,  good  only  for  the 
money  he  can  make.  His  wife  is  working  as  hard  a& 
himself,  and  has  long  since  given  up  trying  to  cultivate 
flowers,  although  there  was  a  time  when  she  loved  and 
admired  them.  They  board  the  farm  hands  because  it 
is  cheaper  (?)  than  to  hire  men  who  board  themselves. 
If  called  upon  to  write  his  epitaph,  and  I  wished  to  tell 
the  truth,  it  would  be  something  like  this: 

"  Here  lies  a  man  who  toiled  from  morn  till  eve  that  he  might 
make  money,  with  which  to  buy  more  land,  on  which  he  might 
work  to  make  more  money  to  buy  more  land.  As  his  acres 
broadened  his  mind  and  soul  narrowed,  and  the  world  was  none 
the  better  for  his  having  lived." 


WHAT  CONSTITUTES  SUCCESS  UPON  THE  FARM.  11 

I  once  heard  an  impressive  sermon  on  the  subject  of 
Lot  pitching  his  tent  towards  Sodom.  The  farmer  who 
has  no  higher  idea  of  life  than  to  make  money,  may  not 
like  Lot  loose  his  property,  but  he  will  loose  all  that 
makes  life  valuable. 

I  do  not  recommend  idleness ;  the  farmer  must  be  a 
worker;  his  crops  must  be  good,  and  the  fertility  of  the 
farm  maintained  or  increased.  He  must  be  a  business 
man,  able  to  give  a  reason  for  what  he  does  ;  he  must 
read  and  think  and  by  intelligent  forethought  make 
himself  master  of  his  farm  and  business  and  not  become 
its  slave.  He  should  also  be  public  spirited  and  ready 
to  do  his  part  in  advancing  the  welfare  of  the  community'. 

To  make  a  home  for  the  family  where  they  may  be 
happy  and  contented  ;  to  rear  the  children  to  industry 
and  yet  teach  them  that  mind  and  soul,  not  dollars  and 
cents,  give  worth  to  man,  and  to  so  manage  the  farm 
that  it  shall  supply  all  their  wants  constitutes  "  success 
in  farming," 


CHAPTER  II 


SELECTION  OF  THE  FARM. 

There  are  many  important  matters  to  be  considered 
in  the  selection  of  the  farm  which  is  to  furnish  its  owner 
a  livelihood  and  his  family  a  home. 

First  of  all  the  farm  must  he  suited  to  his  means. 
Nothing  more  cramps  and  hinders  a  farmer  than  lack  of 
•capital  or  a  debt  hanging  over  him.  My  advice  would 
be  to  buy  a  smaller  farm  which,  when  paid  for,  would 
leave  some  cash  working  capital,  rather  than  a  larger 
one  which  involves  the  buyer  heavily  in  debt. 

The  farmer  who  at  the  close  of  the  year,  after  having 
«old  his  crops  has  cash  on  hand  to  meet  the  expenses 
of  the  coming  year,  works  at  an  immense  advantage  over 
the  man  who  must  use  this  money  in  meeting  debts  and 
start  empty  handed  on  another  year's  labor. 

I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  a  farmer  is  never,  under  any 
circumstances,  justified  in  going  into  debt,  but  what  I 
do  say  is  that  a  farmer  who  can  pay  for  a  farm  of  one 
hundred  acres  and  have  money  enough  left  to  stock  and 
operate  it,  is  unwise  to  purchase  a  two  hundred  acre 
farm  and  hav^  for  years  a  debt  hanging  over  him. 

More  farmers  to-day  are  being  made  dissatisfied  with 
their  calling,  and  hindered  in  their  efforts  at  advance- 
ment by  the  burden  of  debt,  than  by  all  other  causes 
•combined. 

SIZE  OF  THE    FARM. 

Both  large  and  small  farms  have  their  advantages, — 
and  which  is  more  desirable  in  any  particular  case  must 


SELECTION   OF  THE  FARM.  13 

foe  determined  by  two  things: — the  farmer's  means,  and 
his  business  capacity. 

A  large  farm  will  justify  the  purchase  of  more  labor- 
saving  machinery,  and  enable  the  farmer  to  keep  this 
machinery  more  fully  engaged,  more  help  can  be  per- 
manently employed  and  is  thus  at  command  when 
needed  in  an  emergency. 

A  large  farm  furnishes  larger  scope  for  business  man- 
agement and  executive  ability.  The  farmer  is  less  de- 
pendent for  his  profits  on  his  individual  labor  and  more 
on  his  capacit}^  to  wisely  direct  the  labor  of  others.  The 
successful  manager  of  a  large  farm  really  becomes  the 
executive  head  of  a  business  establishment. 

A  large  farm  affords  greater  facilities  for  diversified 
farming;  for  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  ro- 
tation of  crops  and  green  manuring,  and  is  adapted  to 
stock  raising,  which  is  less  laborious  than  where  a  large 
proportion  of  the  income  must  be  derived  from  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil. 

On  a  large  farm  the  amount  of  fencing  in  projDortion 
to  the  number  of  acres  can  be  greatly  reduced  as  larger 
fields  can  be  used,  and  thus  one  heavy  item  of  invest- 
ment and  continued  expense  be  lessened. 

The  man  on  a  small  farm  can  largely  dispense  with 
hired  labor,  and  thus  avoid  the  trouble  connected  with 
managing  the  labor  of  others. 

His  expenses  being  comparatively  small,  his  risk  of 
loss  from  failure  of  crops  or  other  causes  is  also  smaller. 

The  number  of  acres  being  small,  and  every  part  of  it 
being  directl}^  under  his  own  eye,  he  can  more  readily 
secure  thorough  cultivation — which  means  larger  yield 
per  acre  and  less  cost  per  bushel. 

ADAPTATION  TO  PURPOSE  DESIRED. 

The  farm  should  be  adapted  to  that  particular  branch 


14  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

of  agriculture  with  which  the  farmer  is  most  familiar, 
and  which  he  intends  to  follow — but  as  this  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  another  chapter  I  will  not  consider  it  further 
here. 

CONDITION  OF  SOIL. 

Although  a  rich  and  productive  soil  is  always  desira- 
ble, yet  there  are  circumstances  under  which  a  run-down 
farm  ma}^  profitably  be  purchased. 

In  considering  this  matter,  the  first  thing  to  be  looked 
at  is  the  cause  of  tne  want  of  fertility.  If  the  farm  is  a 
rolling  one  and  the  lack  arises  from  washing  ;  or  if  the 
soil  is  thin  and  leachy,  there  are  no  circumstances  which 
would  justif}'  a  man  in  making  the  purchase. 

There  are  however  many  run-down  farms  the  fertility 
of  which  can  be  restored  and  which  can  be  bought  at  so 
low  a  price  that  they  will  prove  a  better  investment 
than  a  fertile  farm  at  the  price  at  which  it  can  be 
obtained. 

If  the  soil  was  originall}^  strong  and  retentive,  espec- 
ially if  it  were  a  heavy  clay,  and  the  fertility  has  been 
exhausted  simplj^  by  excessive  cropping  without  rotation 
or  manuring,  a  judicious  system  of  rotation,  green  ma- 
nures, the  careful  saving  and  applying  of  all  home  fer- 
tilizers with  perhaps  a  reasonable  expenditure  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  will  fuUj^  restore  its  fertility. 

Of  course  due  caution  should  be  used  in  so  important 
a  matter,  but  if  one  is  sure  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
can  be  fully  restored,  he  can  often  obtain  a  good  farm 
in  this  manner  at  less  cost,  and  will  moreover  be  entitled 
to  be  regarded  as  a  public  benefactor. 

HEALTHFULNESS. 

A  healthy  location  is  important.  Many  a  farmer, 
attracted  by  a  fertile  soil  and  low  price,  has  settled  on 
the  border  of  a  swamp  or  in  some  region  infected  with 


SELECTION  OF  THE  FARM.  15 

malaria,  and  has  had  all  the  energy  shaken  out  of  him 
hy  chills  and  fever,  or  his  profits  eaten  up  by  doctor's 
bills  and  quinine. 

WATER. 

Water  supply  both  for  family  and  stock  should  be 
carefully  considered.  The  suppl^^  should  be  wholesome, 
unfailing  and  convenient.  There  are  large  districts 
of  level  lands  in  many  of  our  States,  where  in  a  wet 
season  the  wells  fill  to  the  surface,  and  the  water  becomes 
€ontaminated  and  unwholesome,  while  in  a  drj^  season 
they  fail  entirely.  Careful  inquiry  on  this  matter  should 
T)e  made  not  only  of  the  man  from  whom  you  expect  to 
purchase,  but  also  from  disinterested  parties  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  locality. 

ROADS  AND  CONVENIENCES  TO  MARKET 

Are  important  considerations,  and  on  them  both  the 
comfort  and  profit  of  the  farmer  largel}"  depend. 

The  farmer  on  a  good  free  pike,  within  two  or  three 
miles  of  a  railroad  station,  can  with  a  good  team  take  to 
market  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  bushels  of 
grain  in  a  day.  If  ten  miles  away,  on  a  hilly  mud  road 
it  is  often  a  hard  day's  work  to  market  forty  bushels. 
There  will  not  be  a  day  in  the  year  in  which  the  former 
cannot  go  comfortably  to  postoffice  or  market,  while  the 
latter  will,  in  open  winters,  be  mud-bound  for  weeks  or 
months. 

SCHOOLS  AND  CHURCHES. 

Convenience  of  the  farm  to  these  should  also  be  con- 
sidered, for  if  distant  and  difficult  to  re^ch,  the  wife  and 
children  will  often  be  deprived  of  privileges  which  are 
of  inestimable  value. 

COMMUNITY. 

The  character  of  the  community  should  be  carefully 
considered  before  a  man  decides  to  become  a  member  of 


16  SUCCESS   IN    FARMING. 

it.  No  consideration  should  induce  him  to  settle  in  a 
neighborhood  where  the  Sabbath  was  disregarded  or 
the  inhabitants  known  to  be  lawless  and  immoral. 
There  should  also  be  a  certain  amount  of  public  spirit 
among  the  people  so  that  highways  will  be  kept  in  re- 
pair and  other  measures  for  the  public  good  supportedi. 
All  these  considerations  and  others  which  may  occur 
to  the  reader,  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  "  selectioiL 
of  the  farm." 


CHAPTER  III. 


MANAGEMENT. 

Having  bought  the  farm,  next  comes  the  question  of 
management;  and  here  is  where  many  fail.  It  does  not 
necessarily  follow  because  your  neighbor  has  made  mon- 
ey from  some  specialty  in  farming  that  you,  on  a  differ- 
ent farm,  can  successfully  imitate  him. 

My  own  neighborhood  will  illustrate  this  question  of 
adaptation  of  crops  or  stock  to  the  farm.  One  mile  east 
of  me  there  is  a  tier  of  farms  mainly  rich  bottom  land. 
The  soil  on  these  produces  crops  of  corn  with  a  rotation 
which  once  in  four  or  five  years  brings  them  into  clover. 
The  farmers  who  have  patiently  followed  producing  hogs 
and  corn  on  these  farms  have  grown  rich,  and  at  the 
same  time  kept  their  lands  fertile.  On  either  side  of 
these  is  a  tier  of  broken  farms.  The  drainage  from  the 
farms  still  further  back  has  cut  channels  to  the  main 
stream  until  at  intervals  varying  from  thirty  to  eighty 
rods,  are  deep  ravines  coming  down  through  these  farms. 
This  makes  them  liable  to  wash,  for  the  land  has  not 
only  a  general  slope  to  the  main  stream,  but  a  lateral 
slope  towards  these  ravines.  My  farm  is  in  the  next 
tier,  and  is  back  far  enough  so  as  not  to  be  cut  by  the 
ravines  and  is  generally  level  although  with  fall  enough 
to  drain  it.  A  few  miles  west  of  where  I  live,  is  a  strip 
of  rich  black  land  which  was  originally  swamp  but 
which  has  been  thoroughly  drained  and  improved.  All 
these  farms  call  for  different  management,  and  yet  many 
of  the  farmers  have  not  found  it  out,  but  because  farmer 


18  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

A  on  the  bottom  has  made  money  by  corn  and  hogs, 
farmer  B  on  the  farm  adjoining  has  run  his  ridges  in 
corn  until  he  has  soil  scattered  all  the  way  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

These  bottom  farms  are  the  place  for  hogs  and  Short- 
Horn  cattle.  The  farms  adjoining  them  should  be 
stocked  with  sheep  or  run  as  dairy  farms  with  small 
cattle  like  the  Jerse3^s.  The  next  tier  or  two  gives  us 
our  best  wheat  land,  and  are  well  adapted  to  mixed 
farming,  as  corn,  grass  and  potatoes  do  well  on  them. 
Over  in  the  drained  swamps  is  the  profitable  barley 
land,  and  as  barley  land  is  also  good  corn  land,  here 
again  mixed  farming  is  best. 

These  black  lands,  as  well  as  the  bottoms 'will  grow 
fine  Early  Rose  or  other  early  varieties  of  potatoes ;  but 
Peachblows  and  other  late  maturing  varieties  and  sweet 
potatoes  are  often  a  failure  on  them,  while  on  a  stiff  cold 
vlay  the  Peachblow  and  sweet  potato  produce — with  a 
little  manure — good  crops  of  fine  quality.  We  have  also 
land  that  produces  with  certainty  good  crops  of  wheat 
when  plowed  shallow  or  prepared  by  cultivating  and 
pulverizing  three  inches  of  the  surface  without  breaking 
but  on  which  it  often  fails  when  deeply  plowed. 

Here  and  there  are  farms  with  a  warm  soil  well  suited 
\o  broom  corn  growing,  and  because  their  owners  make 
money  on  the  crop,  some  one  with  a  cold  stiff  clay  at- 
tempts to  grow  it,  and  with  more  than  double  labor  pro- 
duces a  half  crop  of  an  inferior  article. 

I  have  spoken  of  these  farms  to  illustrate  an  impor- 
tant truth,  namely,  that  success  in  farming  depends 
largely  on  intelligence  in  management,  and  in  adapting 
our  products  to  the  soil  and  circumstances  surrounding 
lis. 

Numbers  of  farmers   fail   because   they   do  not  put 


MANAGEMENT.  19 

thought  into  their  business ;  they  have  no  settled  policy 
and  are  not  at  all  certain  that  the  plan  they  are  follow- 
ing — if  indeed  they  can  be  said  to  have  a  plan — is  the 
best  for  them.  As  Peter  exhorts  Christians  to  be  always 
ready  to  give  "a  reason  for  the  hope  in  them,"  so  should 
every  farmer  be  ready  to  give  a  reason  for  the  plan  he 
is  following. 

There  is  nothing  so  essential  on  the  farm  as  brains 
and  good  judgment,  and  the  farmer  may  cultivate  and 
develop  these  as  well  as  corn  or  wheat. 

Another  very  important  thing  in  farm  management  is 
to  determine  how  much  of  the  land  to  plow.  There  are 
localities  where  the  plow  is  the  worst  enemy  of  the  farm- 
er. By  this  I  mean  that  many  farmers  keep  themselves 
and  their  lands  poor  by  excessive  cropping.  The  farm- 
er should  keep  ever  before  him  the  fact  that  it  is  bush- 
els not  acres  that  gives  the  profit. 

No  man  can  by  farming  make  anything  above  a  mere 
living  who  grows  only  average  crops.  Ohio  is  a  good 
agricultural  State,  one  of  the  best  in  the  Union,  and  the 
<irop  statistics  for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  show, 
of  the  two  great  staples,  wheat  and  corn,  an  average  per 
acre,  of  about  12  bushels  of  the  former  and  33  of 
the  latter.  Remember,  these  are  the  averages,  and  of 
course  there  are  thousands  of  farmers  that  fall  below 
this.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  many  farmers  are  poor  and 
in  debt  growing  such  crops  ? 

In  my  judgment,  there  is  no  one  thing  that  has  con- 
tributed so  much  to  this  as  the  keeping  of  too  large  a 
proportion  of  the  land  under  the  plow,  and  the  lack  of 
an  intelligent  rotation.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  a 
bushel  of  w^heat  grown  on  a  field  averaging  ten,  and  one 
averaging  thirty  bushels  per  acre  is  surprising,  and  the 
same  general  rule  holds  good  with  other  crops. 


4 
20  SUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

There  are  thousands  of  farmers  owning  farms  varying^ 
in  size  from  100  to  150  acres  who  are  poor  and 
likely  to  remain  so  just  because  they  keep  two  teams 
and  plow  sixty  or  eighty  acres  a  j^ear  and  do  not  grow 
any  more  grain  than  they  could  with  one  team  and  half 
as  much  land  under  the  plow.  The  ditference  in  the 
profits  of  two  farmers,  one  of  whom  cultivates  what  one 
team  can  do,  and  the  other  on  a  similar  farm  of  the  same 
-size  who  keeps  two  teams,  will  often  be  greatly  in  favor 
of  the  former.  Let  us  suppose  that  two  farmers  try 
these  respective  plans  for  ten  years.  Number  one,  wha 
keeps  but  one  team  saves  three  hundred  dollars  at  the 
start  in  horses  and  harness.  He  would  require  in  the 
ten  years,  extra  plows,  horse-shoeing  and  harness  repair- 
ing, one  hundred  dollars  more.  I  think  one  dollar  a 
week  as  cheap  as  a  work-horse  can  be  kept,  even  on  a 
farm,  and  this  would  make  $104  per  year,  or  $1,040  for 
ten  years.  Then  there  must  be  a  hired  hand  eight 
months  in  the  year  to  drive  the  team,  and  he,  at  $15  sl 
month,  will  cost  $120  per  annum  more,  or  $1,200  for  the 
ten  years.  It  is  worth  $2  per  week  to  board  a  hand,  or, 
say,  $70  for  the  eight  months,  making  $700  for  the  ten 
years.  Bringing  all  these  items  together,  we  have 
^3,340;  but  supposing  the  old  horses  and  harness  are 
worth  $100,  we  will  call  it  $3,240  that  the  farmer  with 
two  teams  has  expended  more  than  the  other. 

But,  says  some  critic,  has  he  not  had  a  fair  return  for 
this  expenditure? 

In  most  cases,  no. 

The  land  left  unplowed  by  the  farmer  with  the  one 
team  was  not  unproductive,  but  was  yielding  crops  of 
butter,  meat,  wool,  or  other  animal  products,  and  at  the 
same  time  storing  up  fertility  for  future  crops  of  grain; 
4and  when  again  plowed,  would  give  a  largely  increased 


MANAGEMENT.  21 

yield  per  acre  over  the  fields  which  had  been  continuously 
cropped.  The  result  would  be  that  with  this  manage- 
ment the  farm  with  the  one  team  would  sell  more  in  tea 
years  than  the  other. 

Here  are  two  systems  contrasted.  All  that  the  faraier 
has  to  show  for  his  $3,240  and  the  labor  and  worry  con- 
nected with  its  expenditure,  is  an  exhausted  soil.  I 
should  expect  ten  years  of  the  one  management  to  result 
in  a  discouraged  farmer,  whose  sons  would  choose  some 
other  calling  in  life;  whose  farm  and  home  would  pre- 
sent a  thriftless  and  cheerless  appearance,  and  who  him- 
self would  be  complaining  that  farming  don't  pay,  and 
be  talking  of  selling  and  "going  west." 

With  the  other  management  I  should  look  confidently 
for  a  happy  and  contented  farmer,  on  a  fertile  and  thrif- 
ty farm,  with  a  bright  and  attractive  home,  and  a  fami- 
ly attached  to  the  calling. 

Success  in  farming  can  only  be  attained  where  there 
is  a  plan  carefully  chosen,  well  arranged  and  faithfully 
pursued. 


CHAPTER    IV 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 

Much  of  the  comfort  of  the  farmer  and  his  family,  and 
also  of  the  stock,  depends  on  the  buildings  found  on  the 
farm ;  and  their  arrangement  and  location  is  important, 
both  as  regards  appearances  and  economy  of  time  and 
labor. 

Perhaps  the  first  consideration  should  be,  to  have 
them  adapted  to  the  farm,  its  productions,  and  the  means 
of  the  farmer.  I  would  alwa3's  advise  the  farmer  to 
build  a  small,  comfortable  house  or  barn,  which  he  could 
pay  for,  rather  than  to  run  in  debt  for  large  and  expen- 
sive buildings. 

Occasionally,  a  farmer  with  a  small  and  unproductive 
farm  will  put  up  buildings  out  of  proportion  in  size  and 
cost  to  the  farm ;  or  a  man  with  a  large  body  of  land 
will  put  up  one  immense  barn  instead  of  two  or  three 
smaller  ones.  This  I  do  not  think  wise  for  several  rea- 
sons: 1st.  It  involves  much  loss  of  time  in  drawing  in 
the  crops.  If  you  are  getting  in  a  field  of  hay  or  grain 
with  rain  threatening,  it  makes  a  great  diflTerence 
whether  3'ou  have  a  hundred  rods  or  a  mile  to  go.  2nd. 
It  makes  extra  work  also  in  drawing  out  manure,  for 
this  will  naturally  be  made  at  the  barn.  3rd.  In  case 
of  fire  the  loss  will  be  much  greater  both  on  building 
and  contents.  And  lastly,  when  the  farmer  dies,  and 
the  property,  according  to  our  excellent  American  laws 
is  to  be  divided  among  the  children,  it  makes  a  fair 
division  diflScult. 


FARM   BUILDINGS.  23 

The  finest  barn  I  ever  saw  was  built  by  a  man  owning 
twelve  hundred  acres  of  land,  and  was  burned  without 
insurance  since  I  visited  it  in  1876.  Although  I  ad- 
mired this  barn  exceedingly,  these  objections  occurred 
to  me.  While  I  would  recommend  the  best  material, 
and  that  buildings  should  be  constructed  with  reference 
to  durability,  I  have  seen  so  much  of  the  evil  of  debt  in 
cramping  the  farmer  and  causing  self  denial  to  himself 
and  family  that  I  would  recommend  temporary  buildings 
for  his  stock  and  crops  rather  than  to  see  him  burdened 
with  debt  for  expensive  ones. 

THE  BARN. 

A  very  cheap  barn,  and  one  that  will  last  for  many 
years,  can  be  made  by  setting  locust  posts  in  the  ground 
for  the  outer  walls  and  spiking  or  bolting  the  nail  ties 
to  them.  The  inside  rows  of  posts  can  stand  on  stones 
and  there  need  not  be  a  mortise  or  tennon  about  the 
building.  A  barn  thirty  feet  wide  and  of  any  desired 
length  may  be  put  up  in  this  way,  and  as  every  board 
and  nail  tie  in  it  is  a  brace,  it  will  be  firm  and  substan- 
tial. In  building  in  this  manner  I  would  always  use 
hard  wood  for  the  frame.  I  would  not  recommend  a 
board  roof  under  any  circumstances,  as  I  have  never 
seen  one  that  gave  satisfaction.* 

The  farmer  who  has  the  liieans  should  put  up  no  cheap 
temporary  buildings,  but  the  fact  that  there  are  many 
who  dread  a  burden  of  debt  and  badly  need  barn  room 
leads  me  to  speak  of  this  method. 

In  building  a  barn  one  should  take  plenty  of  time  to 
study  his  plan,  and  should  make  ever}^  possible  arrange- 

*In  some  of  our  timber  regions,  boards  are  so  much  cheaper 
than  shingles,  that  many  will  continue  to  use  them.  My  west- 
ern experience  has  convinced  me  that  a  board  roof  made  ol 
good  boards,  well  sapped,  seasoned,  and  properly  put  on,  will 
last  many  years  and  give  excellent  satisfaction.    ^       k.  s.  t. 


24  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

ment  for  saving  steps  and  labor.  During  a  large  part 
of  the  year  the  farmer  attends  to  his  stock  when  wearied 
by  field  work,  and  every  step  saved  is  important.  I  be 
lieve  it  is  easy  to  so  arrange  a  barn  that  fifteen  minute'/ 
time  can  be  saved  each  day,  and  in  addition  the  labor 
lightened;  and  this  will  pay  for  quite  an  amount  of 
planning. 

Where  a  barn  is  built  for  cattle  feeding,  the  most 
<:'onvenient  arrangement  I  have  ever  seen  is  to  have 
your  stables  enough  lower  than  the  barn  fioor  so 
that  the  cattle  can  eat  their  hay  and  fodder  directly 
from  the  floor.  This  saves  the  expense  of  mangers,  and 
also  saves  room,  for  the  stables  can  be  made  narrower 
by  the  space  the  manger  would  occupy.  It  makes  the 
lofts  easier  of  access  also  as  the  upper  floors  can  be 
dropped  to  correspond  with  the  stable  floors;  that  is,  if 
3'Our  cattle  stand  three  feet  below  the  level  of  the  barn 
floor,  the  loft  floors  need  be  but  four  feet  above  instead 
of  seven  as  would  be  necessary  if  the  cattle  stood  on  a 
level  with  the  floor.  The  stables  can  be  arranged  on 
three  sides  of  the  floor,  and  if  the  barn  is  thirty  feet 
wide  and  the  floor  twenty,  there  will  be  ample  room  for 
nineteen  head  of  cattle:  seven  on  each  side  and  five  at 
the  end,  and  it  will  be  the  work  of  a  moment  to  give  hay 
or  fodder  to  all  of  them. 

Another  thing  which  I  have  found  very  convenient  is 
to  so  arrange  the  wagon- shed  if  connected  with  the  barn 
that  as  you  drive  through  it  the  barn  floor  will  be  just 
on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  bed.  This  makes  it 
very  convenient  in  loading  or  unloading  barrels,  or  sacks 
of  grain,  and  where  corn  which  has  been  cut  up  is  hauled 
in  to  be  husked  in  the  barn,  it  will  save  one  hand  in 
unloading,  as  no  one  will  be  needed  on  the  wagon  to 
hand  it  down. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  25 

The  bins  for  meal  and  bran,  and  the  cribs  for  corn 
should  be  arranged  with  reference  to  saving  steps,  and 
every  detail  should  be  made  a  matter  of  study. 

There  is  a  point  in  which  many  farmers  could  make 
an  improvement  on  the  approaches  to  the  barn,  and  that 
is  by  so  arranging  their  fences  that  they  need  not  pass 
through  the  barn-yard  to  enter  the  barn.  Where  this 
must  be  done  it  is  almost  impossible  to  do  the  work 
without  getting  the  boots  smeared  with  manure,  to  the 
great  injury  of  the  boots  and  to  the  great  detriment  of 
the  good  wife's  carpet  and  floors,  and  the  farmer  is  likeh^ 
to  advertise  his  business  by  an  unsavory  odor.  It  is  so 
easy  to  arrange  the  barn-j^ard  so  that  the  barn  can  be 
entered  without  passing  through  it  that  I  wonder  every 
farmer  does  not  do  so.  Even  the  barn-yard  into  which 
the  cows  are  turned  may  be  made  a  few  feet  from  the 
stable  door  so  as  to  leave  a  passage  which  can  easily  be 
kept  clean,  for  if  the  cows  can  get  to  the  stable  door 
they  are  sure  to  stand  there  and  drop  their  manure  and 
in  a  wet  time  tramp  it  into  mud.  Instead  of  having  the 
I)arn  form  the  fence  for  one  side  of  the  barn-yard,  set 
your  fence  ten  feet  from  it,  have  this  passage  way  raised 
•above  the  level  of  the  barn-yard  and  well  graveled,  and 
you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  keeping  it  clean  and  the 
«tock  can  easily  be  turned  across  it  into  the  barn-yard. 

The  location  of  the  barn  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance.  It  should  not  be  so  near  the  house  as  to 
T3e  offensive,  nor  so  far  as  to  make  it  laborious  to  travel 
back  and  forth.  It  is  a  moderate  estimate  that  a  farmer 
and  his  help  will  make  an  average  of  ten  trips  a  day 
from  house  to  barn,  and  if  the  latter  is  Mty  3'ards  farther 
away  than  necessary  it  involves  something  more  than 
one  hundred  miles  unnecessary  travel  each  j^ear.  A 
barn  can  be  located  within  fifty  j^ards  of  a  house  and  so 


26  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

managed  as  to  offend  neither  eye  or  nose.  Another  im- 
portant thing  is  that  a  well  drained  spot  if  possible  be 
chosen  for  the  barn.  I  do  not  mean  that  it  should  be 
built,  as  I  have  often  seen,  on  a  steep  hillside  sloping  to 
a  brook,  so  that  every  rain  carries  the  soluble  part  of 
the  manure  away;  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  should  not 
be  on  low  ground  into  which  water  from  adjoining  fields 
can  flow,  and  the  barn-yard  especially  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  water  could  neither  flow  into  nor  out 
of  it. 

HOG  HOUSES. 

One  or  more  pig  pens  or  hog  houses  are  indispensable 
on  farms  where  swine  are  kept;  they  are  needed  to  con- 
fine breeding  animals,  and  to  shut  up  young  pigs  at 
weaning  time.  I  have  made  quite  a  study  of  hog-houses, 
having  built  six  in  the  last  twenty  years,  and  I  have 
never  seen  a  plan  which,  for  convenience  and  econom3^ 
was  better  than  mine.  I  build  eight  feet  wide,  and 
twelve,  fourteen  or  sixteen  long — one  of  the  latter  size 
being  large  enough  to  fatten  ten  hogs  weighing  three 
hundred  pounds  each,  and  the  smaller  one  makes  com- 
fortable quarters  for  two  sows  with  litters.  For  a  foun- 
dation, locust  posts  or  large  boulders  may  be  used,  or 
pillars  of  stone,  or  brick  masonry.  Two  sills,  eight  feet 
long  and  six  by  eight  inches  square,  are  placed  on  the 
foundation  at  the  ends,  aiid  from  one  of  these  to  the 
other  place  joists  two  by  ten  inches,  and  the  length  your 
house  is  to  be.  Bridge  your  joists  so  that  the  weight  will 
come  on  all  alike,  and  then  lay  the  floor  of  inch  lumber, 
double,  so  as  to  have  no  cracks  go  through.  I  have 
tried  two-inch  stuff  for  this,  and  find  that  it  does  not 
last  any  better,  and  costs  more,  as  the  lining  of  the  floor 
may  be  of  cheap  lumber,  and  even  if  strips  four  inches 
wide  are  used  at  the  cracks,  it  will  answer.     After  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


2T 


floor  is  laid,  cut  your  corner-posts  of  four  by  four  stud- 
ding— hard  wood  is  best — and  place  them  at  the  cor- 
ners. As  the  roof  is  only  to  slope  one  way,  the  rear 
posts  need  onl}^  be  four  feet  high,  and  the  front  ones 
seven,  unlesss  you  want  a  loft  over  head,  in  which  case 
the  rear  posts  should  be  eight  feet  high,  and  the  front 
ones  eleven.  Spike  a  two  by  two  inch  studding  on  the 
top  of  your  posts  at  front  and  rear,  for  a  plate ;  fit  in 
another  for  a  nail-tie  in  the  front,  or  two  in  front  and 
one  at  the  rear,  if  you  want  a  loft,  and  let  the  rear  tie 
and  the  upper  front  one  be  the  right  hight  for  the  upper 


HOG-HOUSE. 

floor.  You  will  need  one  or  two  nail-ties  at  each  end^ 
according  to  the  hight,  and  your  first  pair  of  rafters  must 
stand  flush  with  the  sills  and  nail-ties.  Board  it  up 
and  down,  and  as  the  front  and  rear  boards  will  be 
nailed  at  the  bottom  to  a  joist,  and  the  end  boards  to  the 
sills  at  the  bottom  and  the  rafters  at  the  top,  3^ou  will 
find  your  building  firm  and  substantial  when  finished^ 
although  there  is  not  a  mortise  or  a  tenon  about  it. 
Two  hands  can  complete  such  a  building  in  less  than 
two  days'  work,  and  one  thousand  feet  of  lumber  and  a 


28  SUCCESS   IN    FARMING. 

thousand  shingles  will  be  about  a  fair  estimate  for  a 
building  of  this  size.  It  will  require  a  little  more  lum- 
ber if  it  is  made  high  enough  for  a  loft,  but  this  will 
give  storage  for  a  hundred  bushels  of  corn. 

No  hog-house  is  complete  without  a  floored  3^ard  of 
equal  size  attached  to  it.  The  floor  of  the  3- ard  should 
be  a  foot  or  more  lower  than  that  of  the  pen,  and  may 
be  of  cheap  lumber,  or  stone.  It  is  impossible  to  keep 
hogs  confined  on  an  earth  floor  without  having  a  por- 
ridge hole,  breeding  foul  odors ;  but  with  a  floor,  and  a 
supply  of  any  good  absorbent,  such  as  chaff,  cornstalks, 
straw,  or  sawdust,  the  pen  can  be  kept  comparatively 
sweet,  and  a  large  amount  of  valuable  manure  saved. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  movable  partition  to  put  in  the 
pens  when  they  are  used  for  brood  sows.  The  boards 
should  be  made  to  slip  between  pieces  nailed  up  and 
down  just  far  enough  apart  to  receive  them,  and  then 
fastened  down  with  a  pin  or  key.  Where  sows  are  to  be 
kept  at  farrowing  time,  there  should  be  no  cracks  in  the 
partitions.  A  rack  should  be  made  up  next  to  the  raf- 
ters to  receive  these  partition  boards  when  not  in  use. 
In  pens  used  for  breeding  sows,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  nail 
a  two  b}^  four  studding  six  inches  above  the  floor,  to 
prevent  the  mother  from  overlaying  her  pigs.  This 
should  be  nailed  so  that  the  four  inches  would  project 
into  the  pen. 

OTHER  OUTBUILDINGS. 

I  have  but  two  suggestions  about  the  privy,  one  of 
which  is,  that  it  should  be  protected  from  observation  by 
vines  or  trees ;  and  the  other,  that  it  should  never  have 
a  vault  under  it.  A  shallow  box,  raised  high  enough  so 
that  it  can  never  be  flooded  by  surface  water,  and  into 
which  dry  earth  is  thrown  often  enough  to  disinfect  it, 
will  not  only  prevent  danger  of  contaminating  the  well, 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  29 

but  abate  a  nuisance,  and  furnish  several  dollars'  worth 
of  excellent  fertilizer  each  year.  No  better  disinfectant 
was  ever  found  than  dry  earth ;  and  a  privy,  by  its  use, 
may  be  kept  perfectly  free  from  odor. 

Every  farm  should  have  a  poultry -house,  and  the  ma- 
nure from  two  dozen  fowls  will  pa}^  for  it  in  a  few  years, 
if  it  is  built  economically.  It  makes  little  difference  in 
what  shape  it  is  built;  but  there  should  be  a  tight  floor 
under  the  roosts,  and  it  will  be  a  saving  of  space  if  this 
floor  slopes  so  that  the  manure  will  roll  down  on  to  a 
narrow  floor,  or  into  a  box,  where  it  can  be  easily  taken 
up.  The  space  under  this  floor  can  be  used  for  nest 
boxes.  The  poultry-house  should  face  the  south,  and  on 
this  side  have  a  large  window;  but  the  glass  must  be 
protected  with  a  wire  screen,  or  strips  of  lath,  as  the 
hens  will  break  them.  Where  large,  heav}^  fowls  are 
kept,  the  roosts  should  be  low,  and  in  no  case  should 
the  roosts  be  made  one  above  another,  as  the  fowls  will 
always  strive  for  the  highest  roosts. 

There  should  be  a  wood-shed  on  ever}^  farm,  and  this 
should  be  near  the  house.  It  may  be  large  or  small,  but 
should  hold  at  least  a  month's  stock  of  wood;  and  there 
should  be  a  bin  for  kindlings ;  but  it  is  better  that  it 
should  be  large  enough  to  hold  a  stock  for  a  year. 
Buildings  that  must  be  prominent,  should  be  finished 
with  some  regard  to  appearance,  and  a  little  money  will 
be  well  spent  in  making  the  wood-shed   neat  and  tasty. 

Although  not  strictl}^  to  be  classed  as  a  farm  build- 
ing, the  ice-house  should  be  found  on  many  farms. 
Where  there  is  an  unfailing  supply  of  very  cold  water, 
it  can  be  dispensed  with ;  but  where  this  is  wanting, 
there  are  months  in  which  first-class  butter  cannot  be 
made,  and  milk,  fresh  meat,  and  many  articles  of  food, 
cannot  be  kept  twenty-four  hours  without  the  aid  of  ice. 


20  SUCCESS    IX    FAKMIX(i. 

A  good  supply  of  ice  will  enable  the  farmers  wife  to 
make  good  butter  in  dog-days,  and  to  save  much  that 
would  otherwise  be  lost;  besides,  ice  is  indispensable  in 
many  forms  of  sickness. 

There  is  an  idea  amcmg  most  farmers  that  an  ice-house 
must  be  an  expensive  building,  with  double  walls,  or 
sunk  in  the  ground.  There  is  no  purpose  for  which  a 
building  is  needed,  where  so  plain  and  cheap  a  structure 
will  answer,  as  for  an  ice-house.  All  that  is  necessar}^ 
is,  to  have  a  roof,  and  walls  that  will  keep  the  sawdust 
in  its  place.  I  have  seen  at  one  of  the  cheese  factories 
on  the  Western  Reserve  in  Ohio,  an  ice-house  that  would 
hold  one  hundred  tons,  made,  roof  and  all,  of  cheap, 
refuse  lumber,  and  that  probabl}^  did  not  cost  over  thirty 
dollars.  All  that  is  necessar}^  for  ice  to  keep  is,  that 
there  should  be  good  drainage,  to  insure  which  throw  in 
a  foot  of  broken  stone,  or,  if  more  convenient,  wood  or 
old  rails  will  answer,  and  cover  with  six  inches  of  saw- 
dust; that  there  should  be  sufficient  bulk;  that  it  should 
be  well  packed;  that  there  should  be  at  least  twelve 
inches  of  sawdust  at  the  sides,  tighth^  packed  in,  and 
eighteen  inches  above  it,  and  a  roof  above,  to  keep  the 
rain  off.  The  gables  need  not  be  boarded  up,  or,  if  they 
are,  it  is  best  to  have  windows  open  for  ventilation. 
The  farmer  who  can  make  a  pond  on  his  farm,  from 
which  to  cut  ice,  or,  who  is  convenient  to  some  good  source 
of  supply,  can,  in  addition  to  furnishing  his  own  family, 
often  make  a  handsome  profit  from  the  sale  of  ice.  In 
estimating  how  large  to  build,  j^ou  will  allow  fort}'' 
cubic  feet  for  a  ton.  I  do  not  think  less  than  25  tons  of 
ice  will  keep  through  the  summer,  and  the  proportionate 
waste  will  be  much  less  with  a  larger  bulk.  The  ice- 
house should  be  visited  every  day,  as  soon  as  spring 
opens ;  for  even  before  the  weather  is  very  warm,  during 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  31 

the  winds  of  March,  the  ice  will  shrink  and  waste  to 
some  extent,  and  if  an  air-hole  is  formed,  it  will  waste 
rapidly.  Tramp  over  the  top  at  every  visit,  and  level 
the  sawdust  so  as  to  fill  up  an}^  holes  which  are  begin- 
ning to  form. 

TOOL-HOUSE. 

A  tool-house,  which  may  be  a  separate  building,  or  a 
shed  attached  to  the  barn  or  one  of  the  other  buildings, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  out-buildings  of  the  farm. 
Without  it,  the  plows,  harrows,  rakes,  reapers,  etc.,  etc., 
will  often  be  left  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  doubtless 
the  loss  in  a  few  years  to  these  implements  is,  on  many 
farms,  enough  to  build  a  shelter  for  them. 

INSURANCE, 

When  the  farmer  has  provided  the  necessary  build- 
ings, there  is  one  point  more  to  be  attended  to,  and  that 
is,  to  keep  them  insured.  The  rates  for  isolated  farm 
buildings  are  always  low,  and  no  farmer  should  take  the 
risk  of  fire,  when  it  can  be  so  cheaply  guarded  against. 


CHAPTER    V 


FENCING. 


A  heavy  item  of  expense  on  the  farm  is,  building  and 
keeping  In  repair  the  fences.  In  most  timbered  coun- 
tries, a  few  years  ago,  the  fences  were  nearly  all  made 
of  rails.  On  a  large  majority  of  farms  there  is  no  rail 
timber  left,  and  something  else  must  take  the  place  of 
the  old  Virginia  fences  as  they  disappear. 

Hedges  have  been  extensively  planted,  but  there  are 
serious  objections  to  them,  and  those  who  have  had  the 
most  experience  with  them  are  the  least  satisfied.  There 
is  but  one  plant  used  for  this  purpose  to  any  great 
extent,  and  that  is  the  Osage  Orange;  and  while  a 
good  fence  can  be  made  of  it,  it  is  very  seldom 
that  we  find  one.  The  plant  makes  such  a  vigorous- 
growth,  that  nothing  less  than  three  trimmings  a  season 
will  keep  it  in  shape,  and  this  work  must  be  done  at  the 
busy  season  of  the  year,  when  everything  else  is  pushing. 

If,  as  some  do,  we  adopt  the  plan  of  trimming  once  a 
year,  in  winter,  the  hedge  grows  out  of  shape  early  in 
the  summer,  and  soon  becomes  so  tall  as  to  hide  the 
fields  from  view,  and  injure  the  crops,  both  by  its  shade 
and  by  drawing  moisture  and  nourishment  from  the 
adjoining  soil.  The  division  fences  of  a  farm  should  be 
moved  occasionally,  and  this  is  an  objection  to  using 
hedge  for  anything  but  line  fences.  The  fact  that  not 
one  line  of  hedge  out  of  a  hundred  is  so  cared  for  as  to 
give  satisfaction,  and  that  two  or  three  weeks  neg- 
lect at  the   growing  season,  will   make   it   a   difficult 


FENCING.  33 

and  laborious  job  to  get  it  into  good  shape,  leads 
me,  after  an  experience  in  the  care  of  hedges  of  thirty 
years,  to  advise  farmers  to  plant  but  little  of  it.  The 
only  circumstances  under  which  I  would  plant  hedge, 
would  be  to  border  some  permanent  pasture  away  from 
the  road,  where  I  could  allow  it  to  grow  without  trim- 
ming, after  it  was  thick  enough  at  the  bottom  to  turn, 
stock.  On  many  farms  there  could  be  a  line  of  hedge 
managed  in  this  way,  so  that  it  would  not  disfigure  the 
farm,  and  would  afford  a  good  wind-break,  and  make  a 
cheap  and  satisfactory  fence. 

For  general  fencing,  it  seems  pretty  well  settled  now, 
post  and  board,  or  post  and  barbed  wire,  will  be  the 
main  dependence.  In  many  sections,  a  good  stock  law, 
well  enforced,  is  being  made  a  substitute  for  outside 
fences,  and  doubtless  will  become  more  general  as  the 
country  becomes  more  thickly  settled.  It  certainly  is 
greatly  cheaper  to  fence  cattle  in  than  to  fence  them  out. 

POST-AND-BOARD  FENCES. 

In  putting  up  a  fence  of  this  character,  it  does  not  pay 
to  do  a  poor  job  of  work.  The  posts  should  be  of  locust, 
cedar,  or  some  other  durable  wood,  well  set  in  the  ground. 

To  prevent  heaving  by  the  frost,  a  deep  notch  may  be 
cut  into  each  side  of  the  post  near  the  bottom,  and  a  flat 
stone  crowded  into  it,  so  that  the  post  cannot  be  lifted 
without  raising  the  stones. 

Various  plans  have  been  tried  for  the  preservation  of 
posts.  I  haA^e  found  that  the  selection  of  good  posts,  of 
durable  timber,  is  one  of  the  most  effectual,  and,  in  the 
long  run,  the  cheapest.  Painting  the  part  of  the  post 
that  goes  into  the  ground,  or  for  that  matter,  the  whole 
post,  with  coal  tar,  is  inexpensive  and  quite  effectual. 

I  have  tried  on  Eastview  farm  the  plan  of  growing  the 
posts  where  they  stand;  that  is,  I  have  planted  a  row  of 

3 


34  SUCCESS   IN    FARmNG- 

trees  where  I  intend  the  fence  to  be,  set  the  right  dis- 
tance apart  for  fence  posts.  As  soon  as  large  enough, 
I  shall  stand  against  them  panels  of  board  fence,  secur- 
ing them  at  the  top  with  tarred  twine,  or  wire,  tied 
loosely,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  trees,  and  fastened  at 
the  bottom  with  a  stake.  The  trees  can  thus  do  duty 
while  growing  into  valuable  timber. 

A  fence  along  the  highway,  in  front  of  the  farm,  should 
be  neat  and  attractive,  and  some  expense  should  be 
allowed  merely  for  looks.  But  for  other  fences,  some- 
thing in  looks  might  be  sacrificed  to  economy  and  ser- 
vice. In  such  cases,  I  would  recommend  nailing  the 
boards  to  both  sides  of  the  post;  that  is,  nail  the  boards 
at  one  end  of  the  panel  to  one  side  of  the  post,  and  the 
boards  for  the  next  panel  to  the  other  side  of  the  same 
post.  Thus,  in  a  fence  running  east  and  west,  I  would 
nail  the  boards  of  the  first  panel  to  the  north  side  of  the 
first  post  and  south  side  of  the  second  post;  the  next 
panel  to  the  north  side  of  the  second  post  and  south  side 
of  the  the  third  post,  and  so  on.  The  advantages  of 
this  plan  are  that  you  save  all  sawing  and  fitting  of 
boards — if  a  board  is  a  little  long,  it  projects  that  much. 
The  fence  is  much  stronger,  as  you  do  not  have  to  nail 
so  close  to  the  ends  of  the  boards,  and  the  nails  will 
therefore  hold  better.  You  can  also  use  all  your  infer- 
ior posts  for  the  centers  of  the  panels,  as  j^ou  will  nail 
only  to  one  side  of  that  post,  and  the  ends  of  the  boards 
will  not  come  against  it  at  all. 

In  setting  the  posts  for  such  a  fence  as  this,  set  first 
the  posts  for  the  ends  of  the  panels  in  an  exact  line, 
then  lay  a  board  across  from  post  to  post  angling,  the 
way  it  will  be  when  nailed  on,  and  set  your  mid-panel 
post  by  that,  as  it  will  not  be  exactly  in  a  line  with  the 
others.      For   a  very  cheap  fence  the  mid-panel  posts 


FENCING.  35 

might  be  quite  small  ones  sharpened  and  driven  in  with 
41  maul  or  sledge. 

On  level  ground  a  three-board  fence  may  be  so  made 
as  to  turn  any  stock. 

Leave  a  space  of  one  foot  beneath  the  first  board,  five 
inches  between  that  and  the  second,  and  ten  between  the 
second  and  third.  This  will  make  the  fence  three  feet 
nine  inches  high.  Next  plow  a  couple  of  furrows  on 
«ach  side  throwing  the  earth  towards  the  fence,  and  with 
the  shovel  shape  it  up  into  a  round  ridge  with  the  cen- 
ter immediately  under  the  fence.  This  ridge  should,  of 
course,  be  immediately  seeded  down  in  grass. 

If  you  plow  nine  inches  deep,  the  top  of  the  fence  will 
be  four  feet  six  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch, 
and  cattle  with  their  fore  feet  in  the  ditch,  and  hind  feet 
on  the  level,  could  not  possibly  jump  it;  while  if  they 
<'ame  up  so  as  to  get  their  hind  feet  in  the  ditch,  they 
would  be  too  close  to  jump. 

I  think  it  a  good  plan  to  have  fencing  sawed  eleven 
feet  long — as  then  three  panels  would  make  exactly  two 
Tods,  and  furnish  a  convenient  land  measure — and  a 
sharpened  stake  is  then  sufficient  for  the  center  of  the 
panel. 

In  every  line  of  board  fence,  even  when  it  divides  two 
farms,  a  movable  panel  is  a  convenient  thing.  To  make 
this,  select  light,  strong  boards,  and  nail  them  to  light 
uprights,  and  stay  the  panel  with  a  brace  or  two  of  one 
by  three  inch  material.  Let  the  top  board  of  the  panel 
be  six  inches  longer  than  the  others,  so  as  to  project 
three  inches  at  each  end.  Saw  down  six  inches  into  the 
top  of  your  posts  two  cuts  an  inch  and  a  quarter  apart, 
iind  with  an  augur  bore  this  piece  off  at  the  bottom ;, 
this  makes  a  slot  to  receive  the  projecting  end  of  your 
top  board ;   a  pair  of  small  stakes  can  be  driven  close 


36  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

to  the  posts  at  each  end,  to  prevent  the  bottom  of  the 
panel  from  being  blown  or  crowded  out.  When  you 
wish  to  pass  through,  this  can  easily  be  lifted  out  and 
put  back,  and  yet  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  blown 
down  or  opened  by  stock. 

BARBED  WIRE. 

This  is  very  rapidly  coming  into  use,  and  in  the  prai- 
rie sections  of  the  West  is  taking  precedence  of 
all  other  fencing  material.  It  is  certainly  cheaper  than 
board,  as  the  wire  will  practically  last  forever,  and  it  re- 
quires fewer  posts.  I  have  seen  large  herds  of  cattle 
grazing  alongside  of  a  corn  field,  from  which  they  were 
separated  only  by  a  barbed  wire  fence,  with  the  posts 
fifty  feet  apart.  This  is  wider  than  I  would  recom- 
mend ;  but  a  good  post  every  thirty  feet,  with  a  stake 
driven  midway  to  stay  the  wire,  will  make  a  good  fence ; 
and  this  constitutes  a  lawful  fence  in  several  of  the 
Western  States.  I  think  a  good  cattle  fence  can  be 
made  for  less  than  fifty  cents  a  rod,  using  three  wires. 

One  great  advantage  of  barbed  wire  is,  that  in  level 
countries  it  does  not  occasion  snow-drifts,  and  is  not  as 
liable  to  be  blown  down  as  either  rails  or  post  and  boards. 
The  only  disadvantage  connected  with  this  fence  is, 
that  cattle  and  horses  will  sometimes  run  against  the 
wires,  receiving  dangerous,  or  even  fatal  wounds.  I 
have  seen  a  combined  board  and  wire  fence,  that  seemed 
less  liable  to  this  objection.  Two  boards  are  placed  at 
the  bottom,  and  two  barbed  wires  stretched  above  these. 
Every  fourth  post  is  the  full  hight,  the  remaining  three 
l)eing  only  eighteen  inches  above  the  the  ground. 

In  building  a  wire  fence,  the  end  and  corner  posts- 
must  be  well  braced  by  a  heavy  piece  of  timber  from 
the  top  of  the  end  post  to  the  foot  of  the  next  one,  and 
the  wires  must  be  tightly  strained.     I  do  not  give  fur- 


FENCING.  37 

ther  particulars  here,  as  the  manufacturers  of  barbed 
wire  usually  furnish  full  instructions  to  those  who  pur- 
chase the  wire. 

AN    IMPROVED    POST-AND-RAIL    FENCE. 

Where  there  is  still  some  good  rail  timber  left,  an  ex- 
•cellent  and  durable  fence  may  be  make  by  setting  posts 
ten  feet  apart,  splitting  the  rails  quite  thin  and  flat,  and 
nailing  them  on  to  the  posts  with  good,  heavy  nails. 
This  fence  requires  fewer  posts  than  a  board  fence,  uses 
about  one-third  as  many  rails  as  a  worm  fence,  and  as 
the  rails  are  lighter,  saves  fully  three-fourths  of  the  tim- 
ber, and  the  rails  will  last  longer  than  boards. 

PORTABLE   FENCE. 

A  fence  easily  set  up  and  taken  down  is  greatly  to  be 
desired,  and  I  have  given  the  matter  much  thought. 
Four  years  ago  I  invented  a  fence,  which  I  called  a  Self- 
supporting  Truss  Fence.  The  principle  of  this  fence  is, 
to  make  one  panel  support  another,  by  leaning  them 
against  each  other.  The  uprights,  which  take  the  place 
of  posts,  should  be  of  hard  wood,  two  inches  square. 
These  uprights  are  beveled  at  the  top,  so  as  to  exactly 
fit  when  the  bottoms  of  the  panels  are  three  feet  apart. 
The  three  short  boards,  which  you  can  see  at  the  right 
of  the  cut,  are  nailed  to  the  uprights  as  the  panels  are 
set  up,  and  close  the  space  and  support  the  fence. 
There  is  no  need  of  nailing  the  tops  of  the  uprights  to- 
gether, as  these  boards  hold  them  to  their  place  per- 
fectly. I  wish  I  could  truthfully  say  that  this  fence 
would  never  blow  down.  I  had  it  in  use  three  years  be- 
fore a  panel  of  it  did;  but  a  gale  finally  tipped  over 
some  twenty  rods  of  it.  An  expense  of  one  dollar  will, 
however,  fix  forty  rods  of  it  so  that  nothing  short  of  a 
hurricane  will  blow  it  down.  There  are  two  ways  of 
doing  this :     One  is  to  drive  a  short  stake  in  the  ground. 


38 


SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 


flat  against  the  brace  boards  at  the  end  of  the  panel,  and 
drive  a  single  nail  through  it  into  the  upright.  These 
stakes  should  be  high  enough  to  reach  to  the  second 
board,  and  the  nails  should  be  long  enough  to  go  through 
both  stake  and  board, 
and  hold  in  the  oak 
upright.  These  short 
stakes  should  be  driv- 
en on  opposite  sides, 
alternately.  The  oth- 
er way  to  make  it  se- 
cure would  be  to  drive 
a  stake  in  the  ground 
at  every  third  or 
fourth  panel,  in  the 
notch  formed  at  the 
ends  of  the  panels, 
and  let  the  stake  come 
up  as  high  as  the  top 
of  the  fence.  The 
fence  might  stand  for 
years  without  this 
precaution,  but  it  will 
cost  so  little  to  attend 
to  it,  that  I  would 
advise  that  it  be  done. 
When  the  tall  stakes 
are  used,  it  would  not 
be  necessary  to  nail 
the  fence  to  them. 

While  this  fence  cannot  strictly  be  called  a  portable 
one,  it  can  be  moved  by  simply  loosening  the  three  short 
brace-boards,  and  a  given  amount  of  it  can  be  taken 
down  and  put  up  in  less  than  half  the  time  required  to- 


FENCING.  39 

move  a  rail  fence  of  the  same  length.  One  great 
advantage  of  this  fence  is,  that  it  can  be  made  un- 
der cover,  in  wet  weather,  and  during  the  winter, 
while  ordinary  board  fence  can  only  be  made  when  the 
weather  is  good  and  the  land  di*^.  In  making  this 
fence,  you  need  three  strong  trestles,  made  of  timber 
heavy  enough  so  that  you  can  nail  on  them.  After  you 
get  one  panel  made  just  right,  with  the  boards  spaced  to 
suit  and  the  ends  sQuare,  j^ou  will  always  keep  it  on  the 
trestle  for  a  pattern,  and  by  laying  the  uprights  and 
boards  directly  over  those  on  this  panel,  you  will  get 
your  panels  right.  I  do  not  find  five  boards  necessary, 
although  there  are  five  in  the  cut ;  for  the  fact  of  the 
panels  leaning  makes  the  base  broader,  and  stock  are 
less  likely  to  jump  it  than  if  it  stood  perpendicularly. 
A  sixteen-foot  panel  is  too  long,  as  it  will  sag  a  little  in 
the  middle,  and  I  prefer  to  make  them  eleven  or  twelve 
feet  long.  If  you  wish  to  make  it  eleven  feet,  buy  part 
of  your  fencing  twelve  feet,  and  part  fourteen  feet  long, 
and  then  you  can  cut  the  top  brace-board  from  the  twelve- 
foot  lumber,  and  the  other  two  from  the  fourteen. 

That  this  is  a  cheap  fence  is  easily  seen.  If  the  up- 
rights are  made  of  two  by  two  inch  stuff",  it  takes  but 
three  feet  of  lumber  for  them.  It  will  not  cost  for  the 
labor,  more  than  five  cents  a  panel  to  make  it,  and  two 
cents  to  set  it  up;  while  to  make  a  post-and- board  fence 
costs  twenty-five  cents  a  panel  for  labor,  and  two  posts, 
which,  if  good  locust  is  used,  will  cost  twent^^-five  cents 
each. 

A  three-board  fence  of  this  kind  will  turn  cattle.  A 
flat  stone,  or  piece  of  board,  can  be  placed  under  each  of 
the  uprights  of  this  fence,  so  as  to  prevent  all  contact 
with  the  earth,  and  keep  them  from  rotting.  I  would 
not  do  this  until  the  fence  was  built,  as  it  will  be  easier 


40  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

to  put  them  under  then  than  when  setting  up  the  panels. 
I  feel  confident  that  if  this  fence  is  given  a  fair  trial,  it 
will  come  largely  into  use  for  the  division  fences  of  the 
farm.  All  the  fence  except  the  uprights  should  be  of 
pine,  or  light  lumber.  When  made  of  heavy  lumber,  it 
is  more  liable  to  sag. 

LESS  FENCING. 

There  is  one  important  point  in  connection  with  the 
fence  question,  to  which  I  wish  to  call  especial  atten- 
tion, and  that  is,  that  farmers  build  too  much  fence.  I 
see  no  reason  why  forty,  sixty,  or  eighty  acres  of  the  best 
plow  land  on  the  farm  should  not  be  thrown  into  one 
field,  and  so  managed  as  to  turn  no  stock  on  it.  I  have 
practiced  this  for  fifteen  j^ears  on  my  own  farm,  and  am 
much  pleased  with  it.  I  find  that  a  crop  of  clover  al- 
lowed to  grow  and  develop  fully,  so  as  to  be  cut  for  hay 
and  seed,  or  the  second  growth  turned  under,  helps  the 
land  more  than  when  pastured  off,  and  I  believe  that 
clay  lands  are  often  as  much  damaged  by  the  tramping 
of  the  stock  as  they  are  benefitted  by  the  clover.  With 
our  modern  implements  for  saving  the  crops,  we  need 
not  leave  grain  on  the  fields  for  the  stock  to  glean,  and 
we  can  make  as  great  a  profit,  and  keep  the  land  up 
better,  by  farming  our  best  land  without  fences.  If 
there  is  land  not  well  suited  for  tillage,  it  can  be  kept 
in  permanent  pasture.  If  all  the  farm  can  be  culti- 
vated, it  might  have  one  permanent  fence  dividing 
it  through  the  middle;  and  the  self-supporting  fence 
described  can  be  moved  to  fence  off  any  particular  part 
you  wish  to  pasture.  The  exercise  of  thought  and  judg- 
ment in  the  matter  of  fencing  tlie  farm,  using  the  best 
material  where  a  permanent  fence  is  needed,  and  dis- 
pensing with  all  unnecessary  fences,  by  increasing  the 
size  of  fields,  and  using  the  portable  fence  where  it  can 


FENCING.  41 

l)e  used  to  advantage,   will  enable  many  farmers  to  re- 
duce the  expense  of  fencing  their  farms  at  least  one-half* 

GATES, 

If  I  wish  to  get  a  pretty  close  estimate  of  the  charac- 
ter of  a  man,  I  go  and  look  at  his  gates.  If  I  find  them 
secure,  well  hung,  well  fastened  and  easy  to  open  and 
easy  to  shut,  moving  almost  with  a  touch  of  the  finger, 
I  conclude  he  is  a  thrifty,  careful  man,  and  is  having 
success  in  farming.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  J  find  them 
hung  by  one  broken  hinge,  or  on  a  sagging  post,  so  that 
they  have  to  be  dragged  around  through  the  mud,  and 
become  nearly  blockaded  with  every  snow,  with  latches 
or  hooks  out  of  order — or  altogether  wanting — and  the 
gate  propped  up  with  a  pole  or  rail,  I  judge  that  in  all 
his  work  and  all  his  business,  he  is  as  shiftless  and 
careless  as  he  is  with  his  gates,  and  that  his  success  in 
farming  will  be  so  small  that  the  less  business  dealings 
I  have  with  him  the  more  profitable  it  will  be  for  me. 

From  the  number  of  dragging  gates  one  sees  in  the 
country,  it  might  be  imagined  that  the  hanging  of  a 
gate  so  it  will  not  sag  or  drag,  is  one  of  the  unsolved 
problems  of  the  day ;  but,  in  point  of  fact,  only  three 
things  are  needed: 

First.    Common  sense. 

Second.    A  well  built  gate. 

Third.    A  well  set  post. 

The  lack  of  the  first,  displayed  in  many  gates  and 
gate-posts,  is  really  astonishing. 

The  lack  of  the  second  is  found  in  gates  made  out  of 
soft  lumber,  badly  braced,  and  often  twice  as  heavy  as 
need  be. 

The  lack  of  the  third  is  seen  in  poor,  spindling  gate- 
posts, which  look  as  if  they  had  grov^n  in  a  dry  summer, 
set  in  the  ground  so  short  a  distance  that  every  frost 


42  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

throws  them  out  of  position,  and  which,  as  soon  as  the 
ground  becomes  thoroughly  softened  with  rain,  yield  to 
the  side  draft  of  the  gate. 

Now  that  bolts  are  so  cheap,  a  good  gate  ma}^  be 
made  without  a  mortise.  It  should  be  made  of  hard, 
lasting  wood,  except  the  slats,  which  should  be  no  larger 
than  necessary,  as  lightness  is  very  desirable.  At  the 
hinge  end,  a  strip,  one  by  four  inches,  is  put  up  on  each 
side  of  the  slats,  and  securely  bolted  through.  The 
same  is  done  at  the  latch  end,  but  the  uprights  may  be 
lighter.  Two  three  inch  slats — which  need  not  be  more 
than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick — extend  from  the 
bottom  of  the  gate  at  the  hinge  end  to  the  top  at  the 
latch  end,  and  a  bolt  put  through  at  each  slat,  passing 
through  both  braces  and  slat.  An  extra  strip  may  be 
put  on  to  each  side  of  the  top  slat  at  the  hinge  end,  and 
the  hinge,  which  should  be  a  long  strap  one,  securely 
bolted  through.  A,  gate  thus  built  may  rot  down,  but 
will  never  sag.  When  finished  it  should  have  two  good 
coats  of  paint,  and  the  lumber  of  which  it  is  made 
should  be  thoroughly  primed  before  the  gate  is  put  to- 
gether. Every  gate  on  the  farm  should  be  long  enough 
to  allow  the  reaper  to  pass  through. 

The  post  on  which  the  gate  hangs,  should  be  at  least 
eight  inches  square.  The  portion  set  in  the  ground 
may  well  be  left  unsquared.  Bear  in  mind  that  the 
larger  the  piece  of  timber  set  in  the  ground,  the  greater 
the  force  required  to  drag  it  over,  as  it  exposes  a  greater 
surface  to  the  earth. 

Forty  inches  is  the  least  depth  a  post,  intended  to 
support  a  heavy  gate,  should  be  set  in  the  earth,  and 
four  feet  is  better.  A  heavy  sill,  laid  at  the  level  of  the 
ground,  and  exactly  fitting  between  the  two  gate-posts, 
will  not  only  make  it  impossible  for  pigs  to  root  under 


FENCIJiG.  4iJ 

the  gate,  but  will  make  it  almost  impossible  for  the  post 
to  get  out  of  perpendicular  in  that  direction — and  if 
set  as  above  directed,  it  is  not  liable  to  lean  in  any  other 
direction,  unless  the  gate  is  left  open  a  great  deal. 

The  fastening  of  a  gate  may  be  either  a  latch,  a  hook^ 
or  a  peg.  If  the  latter,  the  peg  should  be  fastened  to 
the  post  by  a  strap,  to  prevent  it  from  being  lost  or  car- 
ried away.  When  a  gate  is  well  built,  as  above  de- 
scribed, so  as  never  to  sag,  there*  is  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  be  fastened  w4th  a  latch,  that  will  need  only 
that  the  gate  be  pushed  to. 

The  approaches  to  the  gate  on  both  sides  should  be 
thoroughly  graveled,  so  as  to  make  a  muddy  gateway — - 
one  of  the  greatest  abominations  on  the  farm — an  impos- 
sibility. The  young  man  who  has,  every  time  he  comes 
to  a  gate  in  wet  weather,  to  get  out  of  the  wagon,  wade 
through  deep  mud,  carry  round  one  end  of  a  heavy,  drag- 
ging gate,  drive  the  team  through,  go  back,  drag  the  gate 
to,  prop  it  with  a  rail,  and  get  back  into  the  wagon  with 
wet  feet,  boots  muddied  to  the  top,  and  a  temper  sadly 
ruffled,  must  either  be  deeply  attached  to  the  occupation 
of  agriculture,  or  else  sadl}^  lacking  in  appreciation  of 
comfort  in  life,  if  he  do  not  begin  to  look  for  some  occu- 
pation attended  with  less  hard  and  disagreeable  inci- 
dents of  work. 

But  some  one  objects  that  it  will  be  an  expensive  job 
to  set  a  gate  in  this  manner.  Yes,  it  will  cost  some- 
thing; but  the  time  wasted  in  using  such  gates  as  we 
often  see,  will  amount  to  much  more  in  a  single  year 
than  the  entire  cost  of  gate,  post,  labor  and  graveling. 
Of  course  it  would  be  folly  to  go  to  this  expense  for 
gates  in  places  where  they  will  be  used  but  seldom.  In 
such  places  a  light  lift-gate  costs  but  little,  and  is  prefer- 
able to  a  poorly  hung  hinge-gate. 


44  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

It  should  be  made  like  the  movable  panel,  before  de- 
scribed, except  that  the  top  board  need  not  project,  and 
it  should  be  made  of  good  light  lumber,  well  put  together. 
What  would  be  the  hinge-end  stands  between  two  stakes, 
fastened  together  at  the  top,  the  one  on  the  side  towards 
which  the  gate  opens  being  a  little  more  than  its  width 
back  of  the  other,  so  that  the  gate  will  not  bind  on  them 
when  opened.  One  of  the  boards  of  the  gate  rests  on  a 
piece  of  hard  board  with  a  rounded  edge,  nailed  across 
from  one  stake  to  the  other.  Of  course,  the  bottom 
board  should  clear  the  ground  by  two  or  three  inches. 
The  latch-end  goes  in  between  two  stakes.  To  open  this 
gate,  5^ou  will  slide  it  back  enough  to  clear  the  stakes 
at  the  latch-end,  and  then  carry  that  end  around. 

One  concluding  point:  In  gates,  as  in  fences,  have  as 
few  as  possible;  for  every  gate  is  an  extra  expense,  and 
even  the  best  occasion,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  a  great 
amount  of  lost  time.  The  intelligent  farmer  can  think 
over  this  point  and  draw  his  own  conclusions. 


CHAPTER    VI 


DRAINAGE. 


It  is  no  part  of  the  plan  of  the  present  work  to  furnish 
an  exhaustive  treatise  on  drainage.  Volumes  have  been 
written  on  the  subject,  and  doubtless  more  will  be.  The 
man  who  has  a  large  farm  requiring  extensive  and  syste- 
matic drainage — in  which  he  expects  to  spend  hundreds 
or  thousands  of  dollars,  will  do  well  to  invest  a  few  dol- 
lars in  some  of  the  complete  and  excellent  works  on  the 
subject  that  are  now  in  existence,  and  secure  the  assist- 
ance of  a  civil  engineer. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  be  an  aid  to  the  practical 
farmer  in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  farm,  and  the  drain- 
age of  a  field,  or  portion  of  a  field,  often  becomes  an  im- 
portant part  of  this  ordinary  work. 

I  would  wish  to  relieve  the  average  farmer  of  the  idea 
whicb  is  sometimes  entertained,  that  it  is  hopeless  to  at- 
tempt anything  in  the  way  of  drainage  unless  he  can 
employ  a  civil  engineer  and  have  it  done  scientifically. 
In  the  great  majority  of  our  western  farms,  the  average 
farmer,  with  the  exercise  of  an  average  amount  of  com- 
mon sense,  can  manage  the  entire  matter. 

I  shall  not  in  this  article  say  aught  concerning  stone, 
or  board,  or  straw,  or  brush,  or  any  of  the  other  mater- 
ials that  have  sometimes  been  used  for  drains,  for  prac- 
tical experience  has  narrowed  the  matter  to  the  use  of 
common  round  tiles,  and  we  have  no  space  to  waste  in 
explaining  methods  that  ought  never  to  be  used. 


46  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

WHAT  ADVANTAGE  IS  THERE  IN  UNDERDRAINING  ? 

It  prevents  the  drowning  out  of  crops  in  wet  seasons. 

It  enables  the  farmer  to  work  the  soil  earlier  in  the 
spring  and  sooner  after  rains. 

It  prevents  the  souring  of  the  soil  caused  by  excessive 
moisture. 

It  lessens  the  risk  of  freezing  out  in  winter  grain. 

It  lessens  the  risk  of  surface  washing. 

It  keeps  the  ground  moist  and  the  crops  growing  in  a 
dry  season. 

It  makes  the  ground  warmer. 

It  permits  a  more  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil. 

It  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

To  read  this  list  of  advantages  may  at  first  make  one 
think  of  the  advertisements  of  some  patent  medicines 
which  are  warranted  to  cure  all  and  the  most  dissimilar 
complaints,  but  there  is  not  one  of  the  above  points  but 
w^hat  has  been  demonstrated  practically,  and  can  be  ex- 
plained scientifically. 

HOW    DRAINAGE  IS  BENEFICIAL. 

To  comprehend  this  we  must  consider  as  briefly  as 
possible  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  soil,  and  the 
requirements  of  successful  plant  growth. 

No  soil  can  produce  useful  crops  when  it  is  perma- 
nently saturated  with  water. — Such  a  soil  may  grow 
reeds  and  rushes,  but  not  crops  of  wheat  or  corn. 

The  best  condition  of  soil  for  successful  plant  groAvth 
is  found  when  the  particles  of  the  soil  are  moist,  but 
when  there  is  no  standing  water  between  these  particles. 

Whatever  means  will  bring  about  this  condition,  will 
accomplish  all  the  results  just  stated  as  being  accom- 
plished by  underdrainage. 

In  wet  seasons,  if  no  adequate  means  are  provided  for 
removing  the  excess  of  moisture  that  falls  upon  the  soil. 


DRAINAGE.  47 

it  will  be  continually  saturated  and  the  crops  will  be 
drowned  out.  Underdrainage,  by  furnishing  means  for 
the  escape  of  the  surplus  water  prevents  this. 

It  needs  no  argument  to  prove  that  underdraining  en- 
ables the  ground  to  be  worked  earlier  in  the  spring  and 
sooner  after  rains,  but  farmers  should  consider  the  ad- 
vantage connected  with  this.  The  success  or  failure  of 
a  crop  may  often  be  determined  by  the  time  when  the 
ground  for  them  can  be  prepared. 

Water  standing  in  the  soil  causes  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter to  undergo  what  chemistry  calls  the  acetic  fermenta- 
tion, thus  rendering  the  soil  sour  and  unfit  for  cultiva- 
tion; of  course  underdrainage  removes  this  evil  by  remov- 
ing the  cause. 

The  "  freezing  out "  of  winter  grain  is  not  occasioned 
by  the  excessive  cold,  but  by  the  formation  of  ice  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  soil,  which  throws  out  the  plant  and 
leaves  it  to  perish.  If  the  soil  is  underdrained  the  water 
passes  off  through  the  drains  instead  of  remaining  in  the 
surface  soil  and  this  injury  is  avoided. 

If  the  soil  is  full  of  water,  that  which  falls  upon  it  in 
a  rain  must  flow  off  over  the  surface,  carrying  with  it 
much  of  the  best  and  finest  of  the  soil,  and  often  doing 
much  damage. — Underdraining  leaves  the  pores  of  the 
soil  empty,  so  that  the  water  falling  upon  it  sinks  directly 
in,  to  be  ultimately  carried  off  by  the  drains.  As  an 
illustration  of  this  may  be  noted  that  even  steep  hill 
sides  in  some  of  the  north-eastern  counties  of  Ohio,  where 
the  subsoil  is  gravel,  which  forms  a  natural  underdrain- 
age, do  not  wash  at  all,  while  comparatively  level  fields 
in  sections  resting  on  tough  clay  or  hard  pan,  are  contin- 
ually being  gullied  out  by  the  surface  water. 

All  these  points  are  reasonably  clear,  but  we  now  come 
to  a  claim  that  at  first   seems   paradoxical : — How  can 


48 


SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 


draining  land  keep  it  moist  and  the  crops  growing  in  a 
dry  season  ? 

First.  By  enabling  the  farmer  to  thoroughly  pulver- 
ize the  soil,  and  I  shall  show  in  discussing  pulverization, 
how  that  fits  the  soil  for  drawing  up  moisture  from 
below. 

Second.  By  preventing  the  soil  from  becoming  baked 
and  cloddy.  When  a  soil  is  saturated  with  water,  and 
becomes  dry  simply  by  evaporation,  it  hardens  and 
bakes  so  that  it  is  incapable  of  receiving  moisture  either 
from  the  air  above  or  the  earth  below. 

Third.  By  causing  the  plants  to  send  their  roots 
deeper  into  the  soil.  When  a  plant  begins  to  grow  in 
the  spring  in  an  undrained  soil,  the  roots  will  not 
penetrate  into  the  cold  lower  soil  filled  with  stagnant 
water,  but  run  along  through  the  few  inches  of  drier  sur- 
face. When  the  dry  weather  comes  the  sun  completely 
dries  this  out,  and  the  plant  having  no  other  source  of 
supply,  perishes.  On  land  that  has  been  underdrained, 
the  soil  is  left  in  the  condition  described  as  most  favor- 
able for  plant  growth :  moist,  but  with  no  standing  water 
between  the  particles,  and  the  plant  sends  its  roots  far 
and  deep.  When  the  sun  of  summer  dries  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  the  plant  has  communication  with  the  cool 
moist  soil  far  below. 

The  past  season,  1881,  has  demonstrated  the  truth  of 
this  claim  beyond  a  question.  The  best  crops  were  grown 
on  the  well  drained  fields. 

Underdrainage  makes  the  ground  warmer: 

First.  By  admitting  the  warm  air  into  the  soil.  As 
fast  as  the  water  is  drawn  off  from  below,  the  warm  air 
follows,  penetrating  and  warming  the  soil. 

Second.  Because  a  dry  soil  can  be  warmed  more  read- 
ily than  a  wet  one. 


DRAINAGE.  49 

Third.  Because  evaporation  is  avoided.  Every  one 
who  has  ever  been  caught  in  a  shower  of  rain,  and  stood 
with  his  wet  clothes  on,  knows  how  the  evaporation  of 
the  water  chills  him.  Science  teaches  us  that  the  evap- 
oration of  one  pound  of  water  requires  four  times  as 
much  heat  as  would  be  required  to  raise  the  same  amount 
from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point.  We  see  therefore 
that  if  the  water  that  falls  upon  the  soil  remains  until 
removed  by  evaporation,  all  the  heat  which  should  be 
making  the  soil  warm  is  being  wasted  in  evaporating  the 
water. 

Everybody  knows  that  if  a  jug  of  water  is  wrapped  up 
in  a  wet  flannel,  the  water  in  the  jug  will  not  get  warm 
as  long  as  the  flannel  is  kept  soaked  with  water.  Just 
so  with  the  soil.  It  will  not  get  warm  as  long  as  the 
surface  is  full  of  water. 

Experiment  has  demonstrated  the  truth  of  theory  in 
this  matter.  One  experimenter  made  a  number  of  tests 
in  two  adjoining  fields,  one  drained,  the  other  undrained. 
The  average  temperature  of  the  soil  in  the  field  that  had 
been  drained  was  6^  degrees  higher  than  in  the  other. 
Further  experiments  have  fully  confirmed  these. 

And  this  adds  another  to  the  reasons  why  drainage 
enables  the  earlier  cultivation  of  a  field  and  lengthens  the 
season :  the  ground  becomes  warmer  so  much  earlier  in 
the  spring  and  remains  warm  later  in  the  fall. 

Drainage  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  pulverizing  does — by  enabling  the  soil 
to  absorb  fertility  from  the  atmosphere.  I  describe  in 
the  article  on  pulverization  the  absorptive  power  of  dry 
earth;  but  soil  saturated  with  water  not  only  cannot  be 
penetrated  by  the  air,  but  also  is  incapable  of  absorbing 
any  fertility  from  it.  Therefore,  thorough  drainage  adds 
greatly  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 


50  •  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

WILL  IT  PAY  TO  DR.VIN. 

This  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  important  questions 
connected  with  the  whole  subject.  No  matter  how  scien- 
tific the  theory  or  desirable  the  results — if  the  cost  is 
greater  than  the  accruing  profits,  the  man  who  would 
have  success  in  farming  will  wisely  leave  drainage  for 
the  amateur  who  farms  for  love  and  not  for  profit. 

Sometimes,  in  our  western  states,  land  may  be  found 
that  is  utterly  worthless,  but  which  would  yield  unfail- 
ing crops  if  thoroughly  and  systematically  drained.  Here 
the  reader  will  say,  is  certainly  a  place  where  drainage 
will  pay. — But  wait,  perhaps  it  will  cost  $50  per  acre  to 
reclaim  this  land,  while  equally  good  land  can  be  bought 
for  $15  or  $20  per  acre,  that  needs  no  drainage.  In  this, 
as  in  everything  else  on  the  farm,  common  sense  is  the 
necessary  guide. 

In  many  sections  an  expenditure  of  from  $10  to  $20  per 
acre  will  accomplish  the  desired  result,  and  where  corn 
brings  40  cents,  and  wheat  $1  per  bushel,  the  increased 
3ield,  even  in  the  favorable  years,  will  far  more  than  pay 
the  interest  on  the  investment,  and  in  exceptionally  wet 
or  dry  seasons,  the  drained  land  will  often  produce  a 
good  crop,  while  the  undrained  will  produce  none — and 
this  single  crop  more  than  pay  the  whole  original  cost. 
An  excellent  illustration  of  this  will  be  lound  in  the 
chapter  on  wheat. 

HOW  DOES  THE  WATER  ENTER  THE  TILE? 

This  question  is  often  asked,  and  is  of  some  impor- 
tance, as  some  persons  get  the  idea  that  it  is  necessary 
to  leave  spaces  between  the  tiles  to  admit  the  water — 
which  spaces  admit  stones  and  dirt,  and  sometimes  oc- 
casion the  stoppage  of  the  drain. 

The  water  enters  partly  through  the  spaces  between 
the  tiles,  which,  even  when  they  are  laid  as  closely  as 


DRAINAGE.  51 

possible,  are  far  more  than  sufficient  for  this  purpose. 
The  true  plan  in  laying  tile  is  to  make  the  joints  fit  as 
closely  as  possible,  and  no  uneasiness  need  be  expe- 
rienced lest  the  water  will  not  find  its  way  in. 

HOW  TO  DRAIN. 

Before  beginning  the  work  of  draining,  the  farmer 
should  decide  what  he  intends  to  do.  There  are  many 
farms  where  nothing  more  is  needed  than  to  put  in  here 
^nd  there  a  short  line  of  tile  to  bring  some  low  or  springy 
spot  into  cultivation  and  the  fields  into  good  shape,  and 
here  the  matter  of  draining  is  quite  easy.  Even  on 
farms  where  a  larger  amount  of  draining  is  needed,  the 
slope  of  the  land  may  be  such  as  to  give  a  uniform  fall, 
and  to  indicate  plainly  how  the  drains  should  be  laid 
out.  What  I  would  caution  the  farmer  against  who  lacks 
experience  in  this  matter,  is  making  a  wrong  start  where 
the  fall  is  but  slight,  and  a  general  system  of  drains  is 
required.  On  such  a  farm  it  may  be  necessary  to  ex- 
pend a  much  larger  sum  than  the  farmer  feels  that  he 
i-an  spare  at  once,  and  if  he  begins  with  one  or  two  hun- 
dred dollars  a  work  that  will  require  a  thousand  to  com- 
plete, it  is  important  that  the  money  be  spent  in  putting 
in  main  drains,  with  tile  of  sufficient  size,  so  that  at  some 
future  time  laterals  can  be  cut  and  arranged  to  dis- 
<charge  into  the  mains.  It  is  a  good  plan  always  to  so 
lay  out  the  drains  that  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
knowing  exactly  where  to  dig  to  tap  them ;  and  this  is 
especially  important  in  such  cases  as  the  above.  Lay- 
out the  drains  by  line  if  possible,  and  make  a  plot  of 
them  in  your  account  book,  giving  land-marks  and  meas- 
urements. 

The  most  important  part  of  your  drain  is  the  outlet. 
Make  sure  of  a  good  fall,  so  that  the  water  will  flow 
readily  from  it,  and  see  that  it  is  protected  from  stock. 


52  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

If  the  shape  of  the  land  is  such  that  a  strong  stream  of 
water  is  likely  to  run  over  the  surface  in  a  heavy  rain, 
divide  it  if  possible  a  few  rods  above  the  mouth  of  the 
drain,  and  cause  part  to  flow  on  each  side  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  drain.  Always  begin  digging  a  ditch  at 
the  lowest  point,  and  see  that  it  is  graded  properly  before 
beginning  to  lay  the  tile,  and  then  begin  laying  the  tile  at 
the  upper  end,  and  fill  as  you  go.  The  grade  should  be 
uniform,  and  the  best  way  to  level  the  bottom  of  a  ditch, 
particularly  if  one  is  inexperienced,  is  to  have  the  water 
flowing  through  it,  as  this  will  enable  you  to  detect  at 
once  any  inequality.  There  must  be  no  low  places  in 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  for  if  there  are,  the  drain  will 
inevitably  fill  up.  As  to  depth  and  distance  apart  to  lay 
tile,  there  can  no  general  rule  be  given,  as  to  answer  this^ 
question  one  must  understand  the  soil  and  circum- 
stances. Many  writers  recommend  a  uniform  depth  of 
four  feet;  but,  although  drains  act  in  proportion  to  their 
depth,  there  are  soils  in  which  it  would  be  cheaper  to- 
lay  two  drains  two  feet  deep  and  as  many  rods  apart, 
than  half  the  number  four  feet  deep  and  four  rods  apart. 
The  drains  on  my  farm  are  none  of  them  over  two  feet 
deep,  and  in  some  places  we  struck  the  limestone  at 
twenty  inches,  and  yet  the}^  do  good  service  and  drain  ta 
a  greater  distance  than  we  are  usually  led  to  believe 
drains  will  act.  As  a  proof  how  far  a  drain  two  feet  deep 
will  act,  I  will  give  a  fact  in  my  own  experience.  There 
is  a  neighbor  whose  farm  joins  mine,  and  I  own  the  land 
both  south  and  west  of  him.  About  an  acre  of  his  land 
in  this  corner  was  so  wet  that  for  many  3^ears  no  crops- 
could  be  grown  on  it,  and  often  in  the  spring  there  would 
be  water  standing  on  it,  when  twenty  rods  away  the  land 
was  in  good  condition  to  plow.  On  the  south  of  this,  at 
a  distance  of  forty  feet  from  the  line,  I  put  down  a  lat- 


DRAINAGE.  53 

eral  drain,  and  two  others  at  the  distance  of  forty  and 
-eightj^  feet  from  the  first,  running  them  parallel  with  the 
line  till  they  entered  my  main  drain,  the  water  in  which 
flows  to  the  south-east.  At  a  distance  of  about  sixteen 
rods  from  my  neighbor's  west  line  is  the  head  of  a  drain 
which  runs  north-west  on  my  north  farm.  These  drains 
of  mine  have  so  thoroughly  drained  this  land  of  my 
neighbor's  that  he  now  grows  good  crops  on  it;  and  al- 
though this  is  a  heavy  clay  soil,  these  drains  show  their 
effect  for  at  least  twenty  rods. 

SIZE  OF  TILE 

Is  another  question  which  requires  the  exercise  of  judg- 
ment. Where  the  fall  is  such  as  to  give  a  strong  cur- 
rent, a  tile  of  given  size  will  carry  much  more  water  than 
w^here  there  is  little  fall  and  a  sluggish  current.  The 
length  of  the  drain  must  also  be  taken  into  account,  and 
if  long,  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  use  a  larger  tile  to- 
"wards  the  mouth  than  at  the  head,  to  carry  the  accumu- 
lation of  water.  I  have  found  a  three-inch  tile  large 
-enough  for  all  single  lines  where  the  distance  was  not 
great,  and  use  larger  for  main  lines  into  which  to  run  lat- 
<erals.  I  would  not  advise  the  use  of  tile  less  than  two 
inches  in  the  clear  under  any  circumstances. 

There  is  often  much  unnecessary  labor  in  digging  a 
ditch,  in  digging  too  wide  and  thus  removing  unneces- 
sary earth.  Buy  suitable  tools,  and  be  careful  to  lay  out 
the  ditch  straight  and  as  narrow  as  you  can  work  in,  and 
this  will  be  avoided.  Do  not  put  in  defective  tiles. 
See  that  each  will  ring,  and  reject  all  that  fail  to  do  so. 


CHAPTEK    VII. 


FERTILIZATION. 

A  vital  question  to  the  modern  farmer  is  how  to  main- 
tain the  fertility  of  the  soil,  or,  what  is  still  more  diffi- 
cult, restore  fertility  to  soils  that  have  been  impover- 
ished. 

The  American  farmer,  from  the  fact  that  land  ha& 
been  cheap  and  abundant,  has  been  exceedingly  prodigal 
of  its  fertilit}^  Until  quite  a  recent  period,  there  was  sa 
much  virgin  soil  to  be  cleared,  that  the  farmer,  as  he 
found  his  fields  declining  in  productiveness,  had  only 
with  ax  and  torch  to  conquer  from  the  wilderness  another 
field,  rich  with  the  plant  food  which  had  slowly  accumu- 
lated for  ages.  And  even  when  the  limit  was  reached  in 
our  Central  States,  the  great  West,  with  its  countless 
acres  of  the  richest  soil,  was  waiting  to  welcome  him. 
Under  these  conditions,  our  system  of  farming  grew  to 
be  a  wasteful  one,  and  for  many  ^^ears  the  ^deld  of  crops 
declined  on  much  of  the  land  that  had  been  long  under 
cultivation. 

For  some  years  past,  there  has  been  a  gradual  change 
for  the  better  in  our  sj^stem  of  farming.  Farmers  are 
beginning  to  ask  earnestly :  "  How  can  we  maintain  or 
increase  the  fertility  of  our  lands?"  and  many  old  fields 
have  been  brought  back  to  a  yield  which  equals  that  of 
the  days  of  their  virgin  fertility.  I  think  there  are  farm- 
ers who  honestly  believe  that  the  legitimate  and  inevita- 
ble result  of  farming  is  to  exhaust  the  soil,  and  that  a 


HOME-MADE    MANURES.  55 

farm,  like  a  piece  of  machinery,  will  wear  out  and  be- 
come worthless.  The  problem  we  are  called  to  solve  is, 
to  restore  fertility  to  lands  already  impoverished,  and  to 
so  manage  our  farms  as  to  maintain  or  increase  their 
productiveness. 

In  doing  this,  we  are  to  make  use  of: 

Home-made  manures; 

Green  manures; 

Rotation  of  crops ; 

Pulverization ; 

Commercial  manures. 

I  have  arranged  these  somewhat  in  the  order  of  their 
importance  and  value  to  the  farmer,  although  it  is  a 
little  difficult  to  give  each  one  its  relative  position. 
They  are  all  of  exceeding  importance,  and  largely  de- 
pendent upon  one  another,  and  may  all  be  combined  in 
farm  management.  The  first  four  certainly  cannot  well 
be  separated.  I  have  put  commercial  manures  last,  be- 
cause I  believe  that  home  resources  should  be  utilized 
before  money  is  spent  to  purchase  plant  food. 


HOME-MADE  MANURES. 

How  shall  we  get  the  most? 

How  shall  we  manage  it  so  as  to  have  it  in  the  best 
condition? 

How  and  to  what  crops  shall  we  apply  it? 

Under  the  system  of  farming  generally  practiced,  a 
very  large  part  of  the  manure  is  wasted.  The  barn-yard 
is  not  aiTanged  with  reference  to  saving  manure.  It 
should,  while  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  stock, 
be  small  enough  so  that  it  could  be  deeply  covered  with 
straw,  or  the  waste  of  the  corn  fodder,  so  as  to  retain  the 


56  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

liquid,  and  should  be  so  shaped  that  water  could  neithev; 
enter  it  from  the  adjoining  land,  or  flow  from  it.  To 
this  barn-yard  should  be  brought  all  the  straw  and  corn 
stalks  on  the  farm,  and  instead  of  allowing  the  cattle  to 
tramp  over  the  fields  pasturing  off  the  stalks  through  the 
winter,  they  should  (when  not  in  the  stables)  be  kept  in 
here  from  the  time  grass  fails  in  the  fall  until  turned  on 
pasture  in  the  spring. 

The  farmer  growing  an  average  of  forty  or  fifty  acres 
of  corn  and  wheat  each  year,  and  who  has  followed  the 
old  plan  of  stacking  his  straw  in  the  woods,  and  pastur- 
ing his  stalk  fields,  will  be  astonished  at  the  bulk  of  good 
manure  he  can  save  in  a  year  if  this  plan  is  followed. 

I  would  recommend  that  the  stable  floors  be  made 
water-tight,  and  enough  bedding  used  to  save  all  the 
liquid,  and  that  the  manure  from  the  stables  be  wheeled 
out  and  spread  evenly  over  the  barn-yard,  so  as  to  be 
mixed  with  the  coarser  material.  This  barn-yard  is  to 
be  the  farmer's  chemical  laboratory,  where  the  waste  ma- 
terial of  the  farm,  and  that  which  is  offensive  is  trans- 
muted into  gold. 

While  the  barn-j^ard  is  the  main,  it  is  not  the  only, 
source  of  fertilizers  on  the  farm.  Both  the  poultry- 
house  and  privy  supply  a  fertilizer  nearly  or  quite  equal 
in  value  to  the  commercial  fertilizers  for  which  we  pay 
$30  to  $40  per  ton.  Either  of  these  may  be  prepared  for 
use  so  that  they  will  be  as  pleasant  to  handle  as  dust 
from  the  road,  and  make  a  powerful  and  valuable  ma- 
nure. I  think  that  the  manure  from  a  dozen  fowls  will 
amount  to  a  barrel  or  more  a  3^ear,  and  in  an  experiment 
I  made  two  years  ago  on  wheat  land,  one  barrel  of  hen 
manure,  finely  pulverized  and  drilled  in  with  the  wheat 
on  an  acre,  gave  as  heavy  a  crop  as  the  adjoining  acre 
with  twelve  loads  of  stable  manure.     The  contents  of  the 


HOME-MADE    MANURES.  57 

"box  under  the  privy  and  the  droppings  from  the  hen- 
roost should  be  taken  up  every  week  and  thrown  in  a 
.  bin  prepared  for  the  purpose,  under  cover,  and  enough 
dry  earth  scattered  over  it  to  prevent  any  escape  of 
ammonia,  and  four  weeks  before  it  is  wanted  for  use,  it 
should  be  moistened  with  the  strongest  manure  water 
you  can  get,  so  as  to  cause  fermentation.  If  it  is  partly 
decomposed,  so  that  it  will  not  ferment  readily,  add  one- 
fourth  its  bulk  of  wheat  bran — which  is  of  itself  a  cheap 
and  good  fertilizer — and  a  violent  fermentation  will  at 
once  take  place.  When  you  wish  an  active  fermentation 
with  manure  of  any  kind,  pile  it  up  in  a  conical  heap. 
As  soon  as  this  is  thorough^  hot,  level  it  down  to  six  or 
eight  inches  deep,  scatter  a  little  plaster  over  it  and  turn 
it  every  day,  beating  it  with  the  shovel  so  as  to  make  it 
.fine.  In  a  week  or  so,  sift  it  through  a  mason's  sieve, 
and  if  there  is  much  that  will  not  pass  through,  mix  a 
little  more  bran  with  it,  wet  up  and  heat,  and  go  through 
the  same  process  again.  This  makes  an  exceedingly 
valuable  manure,  especially  to  use  in  the  garden,  or  in 
the  hill  for  melons,  and  when  dry  it  is  oderless.  It  also 
feeds  through  the  fertilizer  drill  as  readily  as  bone  meal. 
What  I  have  said  above  about  stable  manure  relates 
mainl}^  to  quantity.  I  wish  to  recommend  the  thorough 
.fining  of  manure,  that  its  quality  and  availability  may  be 
improved.  We  should  recollect  that  manure  can  only  be 
assimilated  by  the  plant  when  soluble,  and  that  decom- 
position is  much  more  rapid  in  the  compost  heap  than  in 
the  soil.  Many  farmers  object  to  the  labor  of  turning 
and  handling  manure  in  the  barn-yard;  but  as  manure 
is  valuable,  not  for  its  bulk,  but  for  the  available  plant 
food  it  contains,  I  am  convinced  that  by  turning  and 
fining  we  can  so  reduce  the  bulk  and  increase  its  availa- 
bility  as  to   more   than   pay   for   the   labor.     Manure, 


58  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

tramped  down  in  the  stable  or  barn-j^ard  is  impervious 
to  air,  and  fermentation  is  suspended,  and  when  we  wish 
to  prepare  it  for  use,  we  fork  it  up,  so  as  to  admit  the  air 
and  start  fermentation.  It  is  best  always  to  do  this  af- 
ter a  heavy  rain,  as  moisture  is  necessary. 

If  the  manure  is  wanted  for  a  hot-bed,  or  we  want  the 
quickest  fermentation  we  can  get,  make  the  heap  conical 
and  six  or  eight  feet  high,  but  it  must  not  be  left  many 
days  in  this  shape,  or  it  will  fire-fang.  The  best  plan, 
where  a  slow  decomposition  is  wanted,  is  to  make  the 
heap  four  feet  high  and  perfectly  flat.  In  from  ten  to 
twenty  da}  s  this  manure  may  be  turned  again,  and  these 
handlings  will  reduce  its  bulk  at  least  one-half — if  it  was 
coarse  and  strawy — and  will  make  it  of  uniform  quality, 
and  quickly  available  to  the  plant. 

During  many  years' s  experience  as  a  gardener,  I  have 
had  occasion  to  test  this  matter  of  thoroughly  decompos- 
ing and  fining  manure,  and  I  believe  that  a  load  of  good 
stable  manure,  so  finely  pulverized  that  it  could  be  sifted, 
applied  to  a  half  acre,  would  produce  a  heavier  growth,, 
particularly  of  small  grain  or  grass,  than  four  loads  of 
equally  good  manure,  spread  on  as  it  is  ordinarily  ap- 
plied. 

After  considerable  observation  and  experiment  with 
manure,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  I  get  a  better 
return  from  it  when  applied  at  the  surface,  and  that  it 
pays  better  when  applied  to  wheat  than  to  other  field 
crops.  Manured  wheat  is  rarely  a  failure.  Fly,  frost, 
rust,  chinch  bug,  and  other  enemies  soon  overcome  a 
wheat  plant  which  already  lacks  vitality  and  vigor,  but 
rarely  a  vigorous  one  grown  on  a  well  manured  soil ;  and 
this  is  to  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the  value 
of  manure.  Another  reason  why  I  like  surface  manur- 
ing for  wheat  is  that  the  3'oung  plant  may  immediately 


GREEN  MANURING.  59 

feel  its  benefit  and  make  a  good  start  for  winter.  When 
the  manure  is  plowed  under  deeply,  the  wheat  gets 
but  little  benefit  from  it  the  first  autumn,  just  when  it 
most  needs  it.  Still  another  reason  for  using  manure 
on  wheat  and  as  a  top  dressing  is,  that  it  assists  us  to 
grow  a  clover  crop  at  the  same  time  the  wheat  crop  is 
growing,  and  this  clover  crop  is  a  grand  pulverizer  and 
fertilizer.  There  is  little  difficulty  in  bringing  run-down 
land  to  a  high  state  of  productiveness  if  we  can  get  clo- 
ver to  grow  on  it,  and  a  light  dressing  of  manure  at  the 
surface  makes  a  capital  seed  bed  for  the  clover.  The 
farmer  who  follows  a  system  of  rotation  of  crops,  uses  all 
his  manure  on  wheat,  and  alwaj^s  sows  clover  with  his 
wheat,  will  not  need  manure  on  his  corn  crop,  and  will 
rarely  if  ever  fail  to  be  paid  for  his  manure  from  the 
first  wheat  crop. 


GREEN  MANURING. 

If  asked  which  I  considered  the  most  important  to  the 
farmer,  stable  manure  or  green  manures,  I  should  an- 
swer, "  This  ought  ye  to  have  done,  and  not  have  left  the 
other  undone."  I  should  not  be  willing  to  farm  without 
either. 

There  is  this  in  favor  of  green  manuring,  that  there  is 
very  little  labor  about  it,  and  we  avoid  the  dirt  and  dis- 
agreeable odors  which  stable  manures  always  have.  I 
have  experimented  enough  with  clover  to  lead  me  to  de- 
termine that  the  second  growth,  plowed  under  in  July, 
after  the  first  crop  has  been  either  cut  for  hay  or  pas- 
tured, is  worth  to  the  succeeding  wheat  crop  as  much  as 
a  dressing  of  ten  loads  of  manure  per  acre.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  cost  of  fertilizing  by  these  two  methods  is 
great.     Clover  seed  must  be  unusuallyhigh  if  the  cost  of 


60 


SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 


seeding  is  over  $1  per  acre,  while  the  cost  of  hauling  and 
spreading  ten  loads  of  manure,  even  if  on  the  farm, 
would  be  about  three  times  this,  and  the  actual  cost  of 
manure  applied  to  the  field,  will  rarely  fall  short  of  $1 
per  load,  and  often  exceed  it.  One  of  the  fairest  tests  I 
•ever  made  of  the  comparative  value  of  stable  manure  and 
clover  was  on  some  impoverished  land  on  which  I  have 
been  experimenting  for  some  years.  As  I  shall  devote 
a  short  section  to  this  land,  I  will  not  give  the  details 
here.  I  recollect  a  remarkable  yield  of  corn  from  clover 
manuring  about  1861.  I  owned  a  field  of  cold  clay  land 
on  which  I  found  it  difficult  to  grow  paying  crops.  Corn 
rarely  made  over  twent3^-five  bushels  to  the  acre;  but 
one  year,  when  wheat  was  nearly  a  failure,  I  had  a 
splendid  growth  of  clover.  I  did  not  pasture  it  in  the 
fall  or  the  following  spring,  and  by  the  first  week  in  May 
it  was  six  inches  high.  I  turned  it  under  and  had  fifty 
"bushels  of  excellent  corn  to  the  acre,  which,  knowing  the 
quality  of  the  land,  was  a  surprise  to  me.  As  I  think 
over  my  experience  with  clover  as  a  fertilizer,  I  can  say 
I  have  never  been  disappointed  with  it.  Some  fail  to 
get  much  benefit  from  it  because  they  pasture  it  the 
first  season  while  it  is  young  and  tender,  or  turn  on  it 
in  spring,  and  feed  it  oft'  so  short  that  it  never  makes 
growth  enough  to  shade  the  soil  or  develop  its  roots 
properly.  I  shall  devote  a  chapter  to  cloVer,  in  which  I 
shall  more  fully  discuss  its  value  and  proper  manage- 
ment. My  practice  has  been  ever  since  I  began  farm- 
ing, and  my  advice  to  all  is  to  sow  clover  with  every 
acre  of  small  grain.  It  is  the  cheapest  and  best  fertil- 
izer in  America. 

Another  valuable  plant  for  green  manuring  is  rye.  It 
can  be  grown  between  two  crops  of  corn,  and  so  costs 
nothing  for  rent  of  land.     It  will  attain  its  full  growth 


GREEN  MANURING.  61 

SO  that  it  can  be  plowed  under  from  the  first  to  the 
twentieth  of  May,  according  as  the  season  is  early  or 
late.  I  have  found  the  corn  crop  largely  increased  the 
second  year  after  I  had  plowed  in  d  crops  of  rye,  and  its 
mechanical  effects  are  very  marked  and  beneficial.  As- 
I  intend  to  devote  one  chapter  to  "  Rye  on  the  Farm,"  I 
will  leave  it  for  the  present. 

Another  crop  which  is  worthy  of  careful  experiment 
for  the  purpose  of  green  manuring  is  corn.  A  very 
heavy  growth  can  be  made  in  a  few  weeks ;  and  when, 
clover  fails,  the  wheat  stubble  ma}^  be  plowed  and  corn 
sown,  which  will  attain  a  heavy  growth  before  frost.  I 
have  grown  twenty  tons,  green,  per  acre  when  sown  July 
23rd.  A  neighbor  two  j^ears  ago  tried  this  experiment, 
plowing  the  crop  under  as  soon  as  the  frost  killed  it,  and 
was  much  pleased  with  the  result,  the  corn  on  the  field 
next  year  showing  to  a  row  by  its  rank  growth,  where 
the  green  crop  was  plowed  under. 

Buckwheat  makes  an  exceedingly  rapid  growth,  and 
has  an  excellent  effect  in  pulverizing  stubborn  soils.  It 
has  been  claimed  by  experimenters  and  scientific  men 
that  buckwheat,  when  plowed  under,  destroj^s  insects  in 
the  soil.  This  is  a  matter  worthy  of  consideration  and 
careful  experiment. 

I  would  recommend  the  following  experiment  in  green 
manuring  on  exhausted  land:  Seed  heavily  with  rye  in 
autumn;  plow  this  under  when  in  bloom  and  seed  with 
buckwheat,  and  as  soon  as  this  was  large  enough  plow 
it  down  and  sow  four  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  and 
plow  the  latter  under  as  soon  as  killed  by  frost. 

There  are  millions  of  acres  of  land  cultivated  from 
year  to  year  that  do  not  yield  a  cent  of  profit — many  of 
them  at  an  actual  loss — and  for  which  it  is  impossible 
to  get  manure;  and  if  they  can  be  renovated  by  green 


62  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

manurino*,  it  is  time  farmers  knew  it.  I  doubt  if  one 
farmer  in  ten  thousand  can  tell  whether  it  would  pay  to 
give  a  field  the  treatment  I  suggest;  and  yet  how  easy  it 
would  be  to  experiment  with  a  single  acre  and  settle  the 
question. 

The  benefit  from  green  manures  seems  to  be  more  than 
the  actual  plant  food  they  furnish,  for  their  mechanical 
Meet  opens  the  soil*  to  atmospheric  influences,  and  in 
some  way  which  I  cannot  explan,  the  simple  shading  of  the 
soil  enriches  it.  Harlan,  in  his  book  on  Farming  with 
Green  Manures,  alludes  to  this,  and  tells  of  an  English 
farmer  who,  leaving  a  door  lying  on  a  fallow  field  for 
several  months,  found  that  for  several  years  the  crops 
were  heavier  on  that  spot,  as  though  some  rich  manure 
had  been  applied.  The  great  benefit  of  clover  is  sup- 
posed to  be  partly  due  to  the  dense  shade  it  gives  to  the 
soil.  Whatever  is  the  cause  of  the  increased  fertilitj', 
whether  actual  plant  food,  chemical  action  of  the  de- 
caying plants  in  the  soil,  the  mechanical  effect,  shade,  or 
all  combined,  the  fact  remains  that  green  manuring  of- 
fers a  cheap  and  satisfactory  method  of  increasing  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  especially  of  restoring  worn-out 
lands,  and  the  wise  farmer  will  push  his  investigations 
in  this  direction. 

With  all  that  has  been  said  in  favor  of  green  manur- 
ing, I  would  not  give  the  impression  that  fhe  farmer  who 
follows  this  system  would  thereby  be  justified  in  allow- 
ing the  manure  from  the  barn-yard  and  other  sources  to 
be  wasted ;  but  the  best  results  will  come  from  a  combi- 
nation of  the  two,  using  the  stable  manure  with  refer- 
ence to  growing  a  fertilizing  crop. 

COMMERCIAL  MANURES. 
It  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  these  have  been  used 


COMMERCIAL  MANURES.  63 

to  an}'  extent  on  Western  farms,  and  it  is  doubtful  if 
one  farmer  in  twenty  has  used  them  at  all.  In  most 
localities  they  have  now  gained  a  foothold,  and  their  sale 
is  rapidly  increasing.  I  wish  first  to  correct  a  misappre- 
hension concerning  them  which  I  find  prevalent  among 
farmers,  namely,  that  the}'  are  only  stimulants  and  that 
their  use,  while  it  will  produce  increased  crops  for  a 
while,  will  ultimately  impoverish  the  soil.  This  is  a 
mistake,  for  commercial  fertilizers  furnish  plant  food, 
and  cause  an  increase  of  crops  in  the  same  way  as  stable 
manure.  The  error  of  supposing  that  they  are  only 
stimulants  has  probabl}'  arisen  from  the  fact  that  they 
do  not,  like  stable  manures,  furnish  all  the  necessary  ele- 
ments of  plant  food.  By  the  continued  and  exclusive 
use  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  containing  some  particular 
element  of  plant  food  and  deficient  in  others,  heavy  crops 
may  be  grown  which  will  ultimately  exhaust  the  soil  of 
those  elements  wanting  in  the  fertilizer.  The  remedj' 
for  this  trouble  is  to  change  the  fertilizer,  selecting  one 
rich  in  those  ingredients  which  were  wanting  in  the  pre- 
ceding one. 

Commercial  manures  are  not  intended  to  take  the  place 
of  stable  manure,  but  rather,  to  supplement  it;  and  the 
farmer  should  save  and  apply  all  the  home-produced  ma- 
nures before  spending  mone}^  for  others.  Again,  I  would 
not  advise  an^^  farmer  to  invest  largely  in  commercial 
manures  until  he  has  tested  them  on  his  own  land,  for 
they  are  not  as  uniform  and  certain  in  their  action  as 
stable  manure. 

No  farmer  should  purchase  commercial  fertilizers  with 
his  eyes  shut,  but  should  consider  carefully:  Is  this 
fertilizer  the  one  my  soil  needs?  Is  it  adapted  to  the 
crop  I  am  growing?     Is  it  worth  the  price  charged  for  it? 

The  valuable  constituents  in  all  these  fertilizers  are 


64  SUCCESS    IN  FARMING. 

ammonia,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  A  convention 
of  agricultural  chemists  has  considered  this  question, 
and  agreed  upon  a  standard  valuation  of  these  articles, 
so  that  any  farmer  knowing  the  amount  of  each  of  these 
in  any  given  fertilizer,  can  arrive  at  a  reasonably  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  its  value  to  him. 

One  great  advantage  of  using  commercial  manures — 
on  soils  w^here  they  give  good  results — is,  the  ease  with 
which  they  are  applied.  With  a  drill  with  fertilizer  at- 
tachment it  does  not  cost  anj^thing  to  apply  the  manure, 
for  you  can  drill  as  many  acres  of  wheat  a  day  as  you 
could  if  not  using  the  fertilizer.  At  present  a  fertilizer 
drill  costs  about  $25  or  $30  more  than  an  ordinary  one, 
but  a  manufacturer  of  my  acquaintance  has  just  patented 
an  improvement  which  he  thinks  will  enable  him  to  offer 
a  first-class  drill  with  fertilizer  attachment  at  a  few  dol- 
lars above  the  cost  of  an  ordinary  drill.  This  drill  will 
be  tested  before  this  book  goes  to  press,  and  if  it  proves 
satisfactory,  it  will  probably  be  advertised  in  the  last 
pages  of  the  book.  With  the  rapidly  increasing  use  of 
bone  meal  and  other  commercial  fertilizers,  and  the  ex- 
cellent results  from  their  use  in  many  cases  the  wise 
farmer  who  is  purchasing  a  drill,  will  get  one  with  fertil- 
izer attachment,  so  that  he  will  be  prepared  to  use  these 
fertilizers  if  he  finds  them  profitable.  Poultry  manure 
can  be  easily  prepared  as  I  described  in  a  former  chap- 
ter, so  as  to  be  drilled  in.  I  have  recently  been  in  cor- 
respondence with  a  manufacturer  who  is  getting  up  a 
hand  mill  for  grinding  bones,  who  claims  that  he  can 
furnish  a  cheap  mill  with  which  a  man  can  grind  from 
50  to  100  pounds  of  bone  an  hour  and  with  which  dry 
manure  of  any  kind  can  be  reduced  to  powder.  If  this 
can  be  done,  such  a  machine  will  certainly  be  exceedingly 
valuable.     Bone  meal  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  which  is 


COMMERCIAL  MANURES.  65 

the  element  most  needed  for  wheat  and  is  the  most  last- 
ing in  character,  and  will  benefit  the  succeeding  crop, 
particularh^  grass  or  clover  more  than  the  superphos- 
phates, but  the  latter  are  usually  more  soluble  and 
quicker  in  their  action  and  will  give  the  wheat  a  quicker 
start  in  the  fall,  which  is  an  advantage  in  getting  it  well 
rooted  for  winter.  I  know  there  are  localities  where  the 
wheat  crop  has  been  doubled  by  the  use  of  these  fertil- 
izers, and  every  dollar  expended  for  them  has  returned 
two  or  three.  My  advice  to  every  farmer  is,  to  experi- 
ment with  them,  and  if  3^ou  cannot  get  a  fertilizer  drill 
use  them  broadcast  and  harrowed  into  a  mellow  surface. 
This  was  the  way  I  first  tried  bone  meal,  and  I  found  as 
good  effects  from  it  as  when  drilled  in  with  the  wheat. 

Although  bone  meal  and  superphosphates  are  the  prin- 
cipal commercial  fertilizers,  there  are  others  which  may 
often  be  used  with  profit.  In  soils  in  which  lime  is  de- 
ficient, it  can  often  be  used  to  great  advantage.  All 
plants  contain  it,  some  of  them  in  large  quantities,  it 
being  found  in  straw,  hay,  leaves  of  fruit  trees,  peas,  tur- 
nips, etc.,  and  constituting  more  than  one-third  of  the 
ash  of  red  clover. 

Lime  has  other  uses  besides  furnishing  the  plant  what 
it  needs. 

It  counteracts  sourness  in  the  soil.  It  aids  the  decom- 
position of  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  It  breaks  down 
the  mineral  particles,  and  by  these  means  prepares  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  soil  for  the  use  of  plants.  It  is  said 
to  exhaust  the  soil,  but  it  only  does  it  by  producing 
larger  crops,  as  explained  elsewhere  in  connection  with 
other  commercial  fertilizers,  and  the  remedy  is  the  same. 
Lime  is  an  alkali  and  corrects  the  acidity  in  soils  by 
uniting  with  and  neutralizing  the  acids.  Lime  hastens 
the  rotting  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  but  should  never 


66  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

be  used  in  the  compost  heap,  as  it  liberates  the  ammonia 
and  allows  it  to  escape.  Lime  varies  somewhat  in  its 
composition,  and  as  a  rule,  that  which  makes  the  best 
wall  plaster  is  best  for  the  soil.  One  other  fact  in  con- 
nection with  the  use  of  lime  is,  that  it  has  a  tendencj^  to 
sink  in  the  soil,  and  should  alwaj^s  be  applied  at  the 
surface. 

Salt. — This  article  is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  on  some 
crops  and  soils.  It  furnishes  some  portion  of  plant  food 
and  by  chemical  action  in  some  soils  renders  materials 
already  present  available.  One  benefit  from  its  use  is 
that  it  stiffens  the  straw  by  rendering  soluble  the  silica 
in  the  soil,  and  thus  enables  a  crop  of  small  grain  to 
stand  and  ripen  which  without  it  would  lodge.  It  may  be 
sown  on  wheat  in  the  spring  at  the  rate  of  three  or'  four 
bushels  to  the  acre,  and  is  also  valuable  in  the  compost 
heap  at  the  rate  of  a  peck  to  the  cord,  as  it  will  hasten 
decomposition  and  destro}^  both  weed  seeds  and  insects. 
Salt  for  fertilizing  purposes  may  be  had  at  a  small  cost 
from  packing  houses  or  tanneries,  and  it  is  more  valuable 
than  the  fresh  article. 

One  other  commercial  fertilizer  is  gypsum,  or  land 
plaster.  It  is  a  constituent  of  many  plants,  and  is  an  ex- 
cellent absorbent  of  ammonia  and  useful  to  sprinkle  in 
stables,  poultry  houses,  privies,  etc.,  where  it  absorbs  the 
escaping  gases,  saving  them  for  fertilizers  and  purifying 
the  air.  When  used  as  a  fertilizer  it  should  be  applied 
to  growing  crops  and  in  small  quantities,  one  hundred 
pounds  to  the  acre  being  a  sufficient  dressing.  It  is  best 
to  sow  it  when  the  dew  is  on  the  grass  or  on  a  damp  day 
so  that  it  will  adhere  to  the  leaves.  The  most  notable 
advantage  in  plaster  is  obtained  in  its  use  on  the  clover 
crop.  Sown  on  this  it  not  only  largely  increases  the  crop 
but  increases  its  value  as  a  fertilizer.      An   interesting 


PULVERIZATION.  67 

statement  was  made  by  a  farmer  at  an  agricultural  meet- 
ing which  I  attended,  which  was,  that  an  application  of 
a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  plaster  to  one  of  salt,  at  the 
rate  of  a  barrel  to  eight  acres  saved  his  corn  from  the 
out- worm  and  largely  increased  the  yield.  The  corn  was 
on  sod  and  the  cutworms  kept  it  eaten  to  the  ground 
before  the  application  and  continued  to  work  on  a  part 
of  the  field  on  which  the  mixture  was  not  applied,  but 
in  twenty-four  hours  had  entirely  disappeared  from  the 
part  treated. 


PULVERIZATION. 

There  is  an  adage  that  tillage  is  manure;  but  it  is 
onlj'  of  late  years  that  the  value  and  importance  of  thor- 
ough pulverization  of  the  soil  has  begun  to  be  appre- 
ciated. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  pulverization  increases 
the  crop :  First,  by  enabling  the  plant  to  readily  obtain 
from  the  soil  the  material  it  contains.  Second,  by  actu- 
ally increasing  the  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  soil. 
The  latter  is  the  one  we  have  to  do  with  in  this  chapter, 
and  there  are  two  scientific  principles  that  must  be  un- 
derstood before  this  matter  can  be  made  clear. 

Certain  solid  bodies  possess  the  propert}^  of  absorbing 
or  taking  up  great  quantities  of  gases  and  retaining 
them.  Dry  earth  possesses  this  power  in  a  remarkable 
degree,  and  the  extent  of  it  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
minuteness  of  its  division.  The  best  possible  disinfec- 
tant is  now  known  to  be  dry  earth,  reduced  to  an  im- 
palpable powder;  in  this  form  it  completely  destroys 
poisonous  odors  and  gases  by  absorbing  and  retaining 
them  in  an  innocuous  form.     Earth,  in  hard  lumps,  doe» 


68  SUCCESS   IN    FARMING. 

not  possess  this  property  in  an}^  perceptible  degree,  and 
a  handful  of  dust  is  of  more  value  as  a  disinfectant  than 
a  bushel  of  clods. 

The  next  principle  is  what  is  called  capillary  attrac- 
tion. This  is  the  power  that  porous  bodies  have  of  not 
only  absorbing  but  of  drawing  up  liquids.  It  is  the 
principle  that  causes  the  oil  to  rise  in  the  wick  of  a  lamp. 
The  power  of  porous  bodies  to  thus  elevate  liquids  is  ex- 
actly in  proportion  to  the  fineness  of  the  pores.  Hang  a 
piece  of  coarse  twine  and  a  piece  of  very  close,  fine  twine 
with  the  end  of  each  dipping  into  a  vessel  of  water,  and 
it  will  be  found  that  the  water  will  rise  much  higher  in 
the  latter  than  in  the  former. 

A  porous  soil  possesses  this  power  of  capillary  attrac- 
tion, and  hence  can,  during  a  dry  season,  draw  up  water 
from  the  moist  subsoil  below,  exactly  as  a  wick  draws 
up  the  oil  from  the  lamp,  and  its  power  to  thus  draw  up 
moisture  will  be  in  exact  proportion  to  the  number  and 
fiineness  of  the  pores  it  contains.  It  can  be  seen  in  a 
moment  that  the  more  thoroughly  the  soil  is  pulverized,, 
the. more  pores  there  will  be  through  it  and  the  smaller 
they  will  be.  A  field  of  large  clods  will  have  compara- 
tively few  openings  to  the  subsoil  below,  and  these  open- 
ings so  large  that  they  have  no  power  to  draw  up  the 
lower  moisture.  A  field  of  finely  pulverized  soil,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  contain  myriads  of  extremely  minute 
pores,  that  will  act  like  so  many  pumps. 

Now  let  us  see  how  these  two  principles  of  "Absorp- 
tion" and  "Capillar}^  Attraction"  combine  to  fertilize 
the  well  pulverized  soil,  and  make  true  the  statement 
that  "  tillage  is  manure." 

There  are  two  great  original  sources  of  fertility,  and 
from  these,  at  some  time,  all  fertility  must  come  —  the 
air  above  and  the  soil  beneath.     Ammonia,  and  other 


PULVERIZATION.  69 

substances  essential  to  plant  life,  are  constantly  present 
in  the  atmosphere.  The  proportion  is  minute,  but  fully 
sufficient,  if  secured,  to  make  rich  and  productive  fields, 
Now,  under  the  principle  first  laid  down,  of  the  power 
possessed  by  finely  pulverized  earth  to  absorb  and  retain 
gaseous  matters,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  field,  the  surface 
of  which  is  constantly  kept  fineh'  pulverized,  will  be  as 
constantly  drinking  up  fertility  from  this  unfailing- 
source,  and  that  tillage  will  thus  be  continually  increas- 
ing the  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  soil. 

But  we  consider  the  other  permanent  source  of  fer- 
tilit}"  —  the  subsoil.  In  this,  decomposition  is  slowly 
but  surely  progressing,  and  plant  food  is  being  set  free 
in  an  available  form ;  the  moisture  of  the  subsoil  is  con- 
stantly charged  with  useful  salts.  If  we  can  but  draw 
these  up  within  the  reach  of  the  crops,  we  shall  again 
increase  the  supph^  of  food  in  the  surface  soil. 

Thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil,  by  bringing  into 
play  the  principle  of  capillary  attraction,  will  draw  up 
this  moisture,  with  its  fertilizing  salts,  and  thereby  en- 
rich the  surface  soil. 

To  test  this  matter,  take  two  boxes,  spread  in  the  bot- 
tom of  each  a  couple  of  inches  of  w^et  earth;  then  in  the 
one  put  about  three  inches  of  small  hard  clods,  and  in  the 
other  three  inches  of  finely  pulverized,  dry,  mellow  soil. 
In  but  a  short  time,  the.  earth  in  the  latter  box  will  be 
found  moist  to  the  top,  while  the  clods  will  scarcely  be 
aff^ected. 

Pulverization  acts  as  a  fertilizer  in  3^et  another  way: 
Chemical  decompositions  are  constantly  taking  place  in 
the  soil,  by  reason  of  which  material  that  has  previously 
been  valueless,  is  made  available  as  plant  food.  The 
more  finely  the  soil  is  pulverized,  the  more  rapidly  and 
thoroughly  will  these  changes  take  place. 


70  SUCCESS    IN  FARMING. 

We   find,  then,  that   "tillage  is   manure/'    becauser 

The  finel}'  pulverized  soil  absorbs  valuable  elements 
of  fertility  from  the  atmosphere ; 

Because  it  draws  up  fertilizing  material  from  the  sub- 
soil below;  and 

Because  it  makes  available,  material  already  existing, 
in  the  soil. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

This  may  at  first  be  thought  to  belong  to  the  matter 
of  cultivation,  but  a  closer  examination  of  the  subject 
will  soon  demonstrate  the  fact  that  rotation,  as  well  as 
pulverization,  is  a  real  method  for  increasing  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  and  therefore  may  properly  be  consid- 
ered under  the  head  of  "  Fertilization." 

Every  farmer  knows  that  if  a  certain  crop  is  grown 
year  after  year  on  the  same  field  without  change,  rest,  or 
the  addition  of  fertilizers,  that  the  yield  will  continually 
decrease  until  the  soil  will  at  last  refuse  to  produce  thi» 
crop  at  all. 

It  is  also  known  that  if,  after  a  soil  has  been  thus  in- 
jured, it  be  allowed  to  lie  idle  for  one  season,  a  portion; 
of  its  fertility  will  return,  and  the  same  crop  will  grow 
again.  From  this  arose  the  plan  of  allowing  a  field  to  lie 
"fallow." 

But  it  has  also  been  found  that  after  a  field  has  been: 
exhausted  by  continuous  cultivation  of  one  crop  until  it 
will  produce  that  crop  no  more,  a  different  crop  may  be 
successfully  grown.  The  reason  for  this  latter  fact  is 
very  simple  and  easy  to  be  understood.  Each  plant 
draws  from  the  soil  certain  elements  of  fertility  —  ele- 
ments which,  though  absolutely  essential  to  plant-life. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  71 

form  but  a  comparatively  mimite  portion  of  the  soil. 
Continuous  cropping  with  one  crop  may,  therefore,  so 
completely  exhaust  the  soil  of  those  elements  necessary 
for  that  crop  that  no  more  can  be  grown.  But  different 
crops  differ  in  their  needs,  and  after  a  soil  has  been  ex- 
hausted of  the  elements  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
some  one  crop,  it  may  still  contain  the  elements  needed 
by  another.  This  explains  why  a  crop  may  be  grown 
on  a  soil  that  has  been  exhausted  by  another;  but  it 
does  not  yet  explain  how  it  is  that  after  the  second  crop 
has  been  grown  for  some  j^ears — even  without  the  addi- 
tion of  manures  by  the  farmer — the  soil  will  be  found  to 
have  regained,  in  a  measure,  its  capability  for  produc- 
ing the  first  crop. 

The  reason  is  that  Nature  is  continual^  laboring  to 
restore  the  ravages  produced  by  the  hand  of  reckless  man. 
Locked  in  the  soil,  and  especially  in  the  subsoil,  are  al- 
most inexhaustible  sources  of  fertility,  which,  by  the 
forces  of  chemical  decomposition  continually  going  on, 
are  slowly  but  surely  being  unlocked  and  prepared  for 
future  use.  The  rains  and  dews  bring  needed  elements 
from  the  air  above,  and  the  absorptive  power  of  the 
earth  is  continually  gathering  them.  Thus,  even  while 
one  crop  is  growing,  Kature  is  preparing  the  soil  for  an- 
other. Thus  we  see  that  rotation  is  a  real  though  slow 
process  of  fertilization.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  method  by 
which  the  farmer  may  avail  himself  of  Nature's  recuper- 
ative powers. 

If,  in  addition  to  this,  the  rotation  is  accompanied  by 
the  application  of  barn-^^ard  or  commercial  manures, 
and  includes  every  few  years  a  crop  like  clover,  that  is 
especially  adapted  to  draw  from  the  air  above  and  the 
earth  beneath,  food  needed  for  other  plants,  we  see  how 
rotation  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  useful  means  of 


72  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

fertilization  which   the  judicious   farmer   can  control. 

What  constitutes  a  good  system  of  rotation? 

This  must  vary  with  every  locality  and  every  soil. 
What  would  be  the  best  rotation  in  one  place  might  be 
totally  inapplicable  in  another.  Over  a  large  section  of 
our  Western  country  rotation  will  usually  include  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  clover  and,  probably,  grass. 

Let  us  suppose  the  farmer  has  a  soil  well  adapted  to 
diA'crsified  farming,  as  in  the  larger  portion  of  our  West- 
ern land.     He  can  make  a  good  rotation  as  follows : 

First  year,  corn ; 

Second  year,  corn ; 

Third  3'ear,  oats,  flax,  or  spring  barle}^  followed  by 
wheat  in  the  fall ; 

Fourth  year,  sow  clover  on  the  wheat  in  the  spring; 
harvest  the  wheat  and  leave  the  clover  to  grow ; 

Fifth  year,  either  pasture  or  mow  the  clover,  allowing 
a  good  growth  to  form  and  ripen  in  the  fall,  ready  to  be 
plowed  under  the 
.   Sixth  year,  for  corn,  when  the  rotation  begins  again. 

This  rotation  may  be  shortened,  by  seeding  down  to 
wheat  among  the  corn,  in  the  fall  of  the  second  j^ear, 
and  omitting  the  crop  of  flax  or  spring  grain.  But,  as 
in  some  sections  of  the  country  wheat  on  corn  land  is 
less  certain  and  less  productive  than  on  stubble  ground, 
it  is  best  in  such  localities,  if  the  spring  crops  can  profit- 
ably be  grown,  to  include  them  in  the  rotation. 

There  are  some  farms  specially  adapted  to  wheat- 
growing,  and  on  which  it  is  the  most  profitable  crop. 
On  such  farms,  the  wise  cultivator  will  of  course  ar- 
range his  rotation  so  as  to  bring  in  wheat  as  often  in  a 
given  number  of  years  as  possible,  without  injury  to  the 
soil.  The  rotation  should  include  but  a  single  crop  of 
corn,  which,  if  in  a  section  where  it  can  be  done,  should 


ROTATION  OF  CROrS.  73 

"be  seeded  to  wheat  in  the  fall,  and  hy  the  use  of  barn- 
yard or  commercial  fertilizers,  the  course  may  consist  of 
four  years — one  crop  of  corn,  two  of  wheat  and  one  of 
clover. 

The  rotation  can  be  lengthened  by  sowing  timothy 
with  the  wheat  in  the  fall,  following  with  clover  in  the 
spring,  cutting  two  crops  of  mixed  clover  and  timothy, 
pasturing  one  year,  and  then  breaking  for  corn  again. 

One  most  excellent  farmer  of  my  acquaintance,  who 
has  a  large  tract  of  land  specially  adapted  to  corn,  has 
pursued  the  following  rotation,  with  the  result  of 
largely  increasing  the  productiveness  of  the  land,  and 
at  the  same  time  securing  heavy  crops :  Two  crops  of 
corn  are  grown ;  the  second  fall  the  corn  is  cut  up,  and 
the  land  seeded  in  wheat;  clover  is  sown  on  the  wheat 
the  next  spring  and  left  to  grow  after  harvest.  The  fol- 
lowing summer,  after  the  clover  has  attained  a  good 
growth,  hogs  are  turned  on  and  kept  on  it  all  summer. 
In  the  fall  he  feeds  the  hogs  on  the  field,  having  the  corn 
scatterered  in  a  different  place  each  day,  and  the  cobs 
and  droppings  of  the  pigs  are  thus  spread  evenly  over 
the  field.  The  following  spring  he  breaks  again  for  corn, 
grows  two  crops  and  follows  with  wheat,  clover,  hogs,  a^ 
before. 

At  what  point  of  the  rotation  should  the  manure  be 
applied? 

This  is  an  important  question,  and  one  which  each 
farmer  must  answer  for  himself  by  the  use  of  thought, 
observation  and  common  sense.  There  is  no  place  where 
empiricism  is  more  ruinous  than  on  the  farm.  Farmer 
A.  plows  his  manure  under  for  corn,  and  succeeds,  and 
Farmer  B.,  with  a  totally  different  soil,  very  illogically 
concludes  that  the  same  plan  will  be  successful  with 
him.      Farmers  who  would  have   success  in  farming. 


74  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

must  learn  to  study  the  reasons  for  certain  actions. 

The  opinion  of  many  of  our  best  farmers  is,  that  the 
"best  place  in  the  rotation  for  the  application  of  manure 
is  on  the  wheat  crop,  used  as  a  top  dressing  shortly  be- 
fore seeding.  The  reasons  for  this  are  given  in  other 
sections  of  this  chapter.  In  some  cases,  as  where  the 
soil  is  naturally  rank — as  in  some  of  our  bottom  farms 
— such  application  may  prove  actually  injurious,  caus- 
ing the  wheat  to  grow  too  sappy  and  succulent,  and 
lodge.  In  such  cases  it  is  often  best  to  use  the  barn- 
yard manure  as  a  top  dressing  to  the  corn  crop,  and  use 
bone  meal,  or  super-phosphate,  drilled  in  with  the 
wheat. 

There  are  cases  —  in  heavy,  cold,  retentive  soils — 
where  the  coarse  manure  may  profitably  be  spread  on 
the  field  during  winter  and  plowed  under  for  corn.  Its 
mechanical  action  loosens  the  soil,  while  the  retentive 
character  of  the  land  prevents  undue  waste.  On  light, 
and  especially  on  leachy  soils,  the  plowing  under  of 
coarse  manure  is  undoubtedly  a  wasteful  and  unprofita- 
ble practice. 

Land  plaster  (gypsum)  when  attainable  at  a  reason- 
able price,  may  almost  always  be  profitably  applied  to 
the  clover  crop.  Sown  broadcast  in  the  spring,  it  deep- 
ens the  color,  increases  the  growth,  and  usually  has  a 
marked  beneficial  eft'ect  on  the  succeeding  crop  of  corn. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  MANURE. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  fertilization,  I  wish  to 
suggest  some  experiments  easily  tried,  and  mention 
some  which  I  have  tried.  It  is  a  matter  of  interest  to 
know  what  a  load  of  manure  is  worth  on  the  difl'erent 


experimj:nts  with  manure.  75 

crops,  and  one  or  more  experiments  each  year  in  this 
line  will  be  profitable.  Manure,  like  certain  funds  once 
used  in  Congress,  should  be  placed  where  it  will  do  the 
most  good.  Calling  a  half  cord  of  rotted,  well  compost- 
ed manure  a  load,  apply  it  to  a  tenth  of  an  acre  of  each 
of  the  different  crops,  and  then  compare  with  an  equal 
unmanured  plot  and  see  what  the  increase  is.  It  might 
be  well,  on  such  crops  as  potatoes  and  corn,  to  try  ap- 
plying it  broadcast  and  in  the  hill,  making  that  used  in 
the  hill  cover  more  land.  Another  experiment,  and  one 
especially  to  be  tried  with  wheat  crops,  is  plowing  un- 
der the  manure  on  one  part,  and  using  it  as  a  top  dress- 
ing on  an  adjoining  one. 

The  fining  of  manure  is  another  thing  that  should  be 
made  a  matter  of  experiment.  Put  a  load  of  manure  in 
the  usual  condition  on  a  tenth  acre,  as  a  top  dressing" 
for  wheat,  and  then  pulverize  as  fine  as  possible  an  equal 
amount  and  apply  to  just  double  the  amount  of  land. 
If  you  get  the  manure  almost  fine  enough  to  screen^  I 
think  you  will  find  a  larger  ^deld  of  wheat  from  half  the 
amount  of  manure  when  finely  pulverized. 

Another  experiment  to  show  whether  it  will  pay  to 
have  sheds  for  our  manure,  would  be  valuable.  Take  a 
load  of  manure  from  a  stable,  where  it  has  been  allowed 
to  accumulate,  and  which  contains  the  liquid  as  well  as- 
the  solid,  and  apply  it  alongside  of  a  plot  manured  with 
that  from  the  barn-yard.  It  is  often  a  question  with 
the  farmer  who  has  a  ten-acre  wheat  field  to  sow,  and 
fifty  loads  of  manure  for  it,  whether  it  is  better  to  ma- 
nure one-half  and  leave  the  remainder  unmanured,  or 
to  give  a  light  coating  to  the  whole  field.  This  is  a 
very  important  matter,  and  one  that  should  be  fully  set- 
tled by  repeated  experiment. 

Every   farmer   should   know  what   effect  bone-meal, 


76  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

«uper-phosphate,  and  other  commercial  fertilizers  at  his 
command  will  have  upon  his  soil,  and  this  he  cannot 
know  except  by  actual  test.  If  $3  worth  of  bone  will 
give  $5  to  $10  worth  of  extra  wheat  on  an  acre,  as  without 
doubt  it  does  on  some  soils,  he  can  then  afford  to  apply 
his  home  supply  of  manure  to  less  land,  and  use  ground 
bone  on  the  reipiainder. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  manure,  we  are  to  take  into 
consideration:  First,  the  increased  yield  of  the  crop  to 
which  it  is  applied.  Second,  its  effect  in  enabling  a  crop 
to  resist  enemies.  Third,  the  increased  earliness  of  the 
crop,  and  its  greater  value  on  this  account.  Fourth,  the 
length  of  time  that  the  manure  will  act  on  crops,  either 
directly  or  through  a  fertilizing  crop  which  it  enables 
us  to  grow.  In  order  to  test  the  first,  we  should  always 
leave  a  strip  without  manure  to  compare  with.  The  second 
item  is  of  greater  importance  than  many  imagine,  for 
the  extra  vitality  which  manure  gives  will  enable  a  plant 
to  successfully  resist  what  would  be  fatal  to  a  weak, 
sickly  one.  We  often  see  this  in  a  wheat  field  on  im- 
poA^erished  soil,  where  one  part  of  the  field  has  been  ma- 
nured. While  the  unmanured  part  is  winter-killed,  or 
destroyed  by  the  fly,  or  eaten  up  by  chinch  bug,  or 
blighted  by  rust,  the  part  manured  resists  each  and  all 
these  malign. influences,  and  makes  a  good  crop.  The 
same  thing  may  be  seen  in  growing  potatoes.  I  have 
never  seen  the  Colorado  beetles  injure  materially  the 
crop  on  highly  manured  land.  When  the  season  was 
good  and  they  were  well  cultivated,  the  vines  would 
grow  right  away  from  the  bugs ;  but  let  the  soil  be  poor,  or 
cultivation  neglected,  and  the  Colorados  soon  have  the 
mastery.  The  advantage  of  manure  in  hastening  the 
maturity  of  crops  is  of  greater  imjiortance  to  the  gar- 
dener than  to  the  farmer,  as  the  prices  of  his  products 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  MANURE.  77 

are  largely  determined  by  their  earliness,  two  or  three 
days'  difference  in  the  maturity  of  the  crop  sometimes 
making  a  difference  of  one-half  in  the  price.  It  would 
be  an  interesting  experiment,  particularly  on  our  strong, 
clay,  limestone  soils,  to  ascertain  how  long  the  effects  of 
manure  could  be  noticed  on  the  crops,  and  thus  ta 
be  able  to  give  a  better  idea  of  the  value  of  manure. 
This  could  be  easily  found  out,  at  least  approximately, 
by  growing  crops  on  a  manured  plot,  and  by  the  side  of 
it  on  an  unmanured  one,  and  following  it  up,  weighing 
the  product  of  each  as  long  as  they  showed  any  differ- 
ence. You  would  at  the  same  time  be  finding  out  the 
value  of  your  load  of  manure.  These  experiments  should 
include  nightsoil,  poultry  manure,  land  plaster,  or  any- 
thing available,  which  promises  to  furnish  directly  or 
indirectly,  food  for  the  plant.  Tanbark  can  be  burned, 
and  an  ash,  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  formed.  Sawdust 
can  be  carbonized  by  burning  in  pits,  like  charcoal,  and 
may  be  exceedingly  valuable  on  some  soils.  Those  living 
near  elevators,  where  thousands  of  bushels  of  corn-cobs 
accumulate,  can  experiment  with  them  by  composting  or 
burning.  And  if  we  keep  our  eyes  open,  we  shall  find  in. 
almost  any  locality  waste  products  which  we  may  utilize. 
I  have  been  much  interested  in  burning  straw  or  stub- 
ble on  the  surface,  especiall}^  where  land  is  to  be  pre- 
pared for  wheat.  I  have  experimented  to  some  extenty 
and  am  convinced  that  all  straw  that  can  be  spared  cart 
be  used  profitably  by  spreading  it  on  the  surface  and 
burning.  It  should  be  spread  thickly  enough  so  as  to 
burn  the  soil  a  little.  I  shall  give  an  account  of  some 
experiments  with  various  manures  in  a  chapter  on  ex- 
periments with  wheat.* 

*Burning  straw  spread  on  the  ground  is  certainly  an  immense 
improvement  on  the  custom  adopted  in  some  parts  of  the  West 


7S  SUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

I  tried  an  interesting  experiment  with  wheat  bran  as 
a  manure  two  years  ago.  I  mixed  fifty  pounds  of  bran 
wdth  an  equal  bulk  of  rich  mould,  and  wet  it  with  leach- 
ings  from  the  manure  pile.  As  soon  as  it  had  heated,  I 
leveled  off  the  pile  and  stirred  occasionally  until  the 
heat  had  subsided,  and  in  a  few  weeks  it  was  thoroughly 
decomposed.  I  planted  a  half  acre  of  Peach-blow  pota- 
toes on  a  poor  clay  knob,  on  which  corn  did  not  make 
over  fifteen  bushels  per  acre  the  previous  season.  I  ma- 
nured alternate  rows  with  a  single  handful  of  this  pre- 
pared bran  to  the  hill,  using  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred 
pounds  of  the  bran  to  the  acre,  and  as  bran  cost  but  $10 
per  ton,  the  cost,  besides  the  labor,  would  have  been  but 
$2.50  per  acre.  By  the  time  the  potatoes  had  been 
planted  a  month,  the  rows  treated  with  the  bran  were 
six  inches  taller,  and  of  a  better  color,  and  all  through 
the  growing  season  the  difference  in  the  rows  was  plainly 
discernable.  At  digging  time  I  took  a  pair  of  steel- 
yards to  the  field,  and  would  dig  down  a  manured  row 
till  I  got  a  basket  full  and  then  weigh  and  empty  them, 
and  dig  back  on  the  unmanured  row.  I  cannot  now  re- 
fer to  the  record  which  I  made  of  this  experiment;  but 
I  remember   that  several  times  the  manured  row  gave 


of  burning  it  in  the  stack,  or  of  thrashins:  on  the  bank  of  a 
stream  and  allowing  the  straw  to  be  floated  away.  The  most 
valuable  constituent  of  straw  is  the  mineral  portion,  which,  of 
course,  is  left  in  the  ash,  and  when  the  straw  is  burned  on  the 
surface  of  the  field  this  is  left  in  a  very  available  form.  But  all 
this  is  secured  when  the  straw  is  rotted  in  the  manure  pile,  and 
much  nitrogenous  matter  is  also  saved  that  is  inevitably  lost 
when  the  straw  is  burned.  It  is  therefore  chemically  certain 
that  a  ton  of  straw  has  a  greater  manurial  value  when  rotted  in 
the  manure  pile,  than  when  burned.  And  when  we  consider 
the  incidental  value  of  straw  in  absorbing  and  retaining  the 
liquid  portion  of  the  manure,  I  think  it  will  be  seen  that  it  must 
be  under  very  exceptional  circumstance,  and  on  farms  where 
the  amount  of  stock  kept  is  very  small,  when  it  will  pay  to  burn 
straw.  K.  s.  T. 


31Y  OWN  EXPERIENCE.  79 

double,  and  in  no  case  less  than  a  half  more,  while  the 
quality  was  very  superior.  The  extra  potatoes  produced 
in  the  rows  on  which  the  bran  mixture  was  used  did  not 
€ost  eight  cents  a  bushel. 

This  question  of  experimenting  with  manures  is  one 
of  great  interest,  and  every  intelligent  farmer  should  do 
something  in  this  line  each  year.  A  record  of  such  ex- 
periments becomes  exceedingly  valuable  to  refer  to. 

Farm  experiments  are  valuable  in  their  influence  on 
the  man,  in  making  him  more  accurate  and  observing 
and  familiar  with  the  mysterious  works  of  nature.  They 
are  also  absolutely  necessary  to  the  proper  understand- 
ing of  what  is  best  to  do  on  his  own  farm,  as  soils  and 
conditions  vary  to  such  an  extent  that  the  experiments 
of  another,  under  different  conditions,  may  not  be  bene- 
ficial to  him. 


MY  OWN  EXPERIENCE. 

BmNGING  UP  A  RUN-DOWN  FIELD. 

As  I  know  farmers  like  to  see  theory  put  to  a  practi- 
cal test,  I  will  give  an  item  of  m}"  own  experience  in  the 
matter  of  restoring  lost  fertilit}^  In  the  year  1877,  I 
bought  at  a  low  price  fifty  acres  of  worn  land.  I  had 
lived  adjoining  it  for  nearly  thirty  ^^ears,  and  had  seen 
every  crop  grown  on  it  in  that  time,  and,  as  nearly  as  I 
can  recollect,  it  had  not  once  produced  over  twelve  bush- 
els of  wheat  or  twenty-five  of  corn  to  the  acre.  It  had 
received  little  or  no  manure,  and  when  seeded  to  grass 
or  clover  was  usually  so  overstocked  as  to  receive  no 
benefit.  Twenty-five  acres  of  it  was  level  enough  for 
good  plow  land,  but  was  divided  diagonally  by  two  wet 


80  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

strips  which  could  not  be  plowed.  When  I  bought  it,  it 
was  rented  for  the  season,  and  every  available  foot  of  it 
plowed  for  corn  so  I  did  not  get  possession  till  the  fall 
of  1877.  The  crop  on  it  for  that  year  was  like  all  I  had 
seen  before,  very  poor,  the  corn  making  about  twenty 
bushels  to  the  acre,  and  as  the  season  was  a  wet  one  the 
ground  was  covered  with  a  heav}^  growth  of  foxtail.  We- 
sowed  seven  acres  in  wheat  where  the  corn  had  been  cut 
up,  and,  on  accout  of  the  foxtail,  got  it  in  badly,  and  the 
result  was  but  four  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre  of  in- 
ferior grain,  but  a  good  stand  of  clover.  In  the  spring 
of  1878  we  sowed  fifteen  acres  in  oats,  and  put  the  re- 
mainder in  corn,  potatoes,  and  beans,  but  the  only 
encouraging  feature  of  this  3'ear  was  that  on  the  oats 
and  wheat  ground  we  got  a  good  stand  of  clover  and 
grass.  That  fall  I  laid  eighty  rods  of  tile  and  sowed 
eleven  acres  of  wheat  where  beans,  potatoes  and  corn 
had  grown.  We  manured  one  half  of  it  with  barn-yard 
manure,  used  a  little  bone  meal,  and  put  it  in  as  well  as 
we  could,  and  our  wheat  from  this  field  was  241  bushels 
or  about  22  bushels  to  the  acre.  We  got  a  fair  crop  of 
clover  hay  on  ten  acres  of  the  land  where  the  poor  wheat 
and  oats  had  grown;  laid  fifty  rods  more  of  tile  in  the 
last  wet  strip,  and  in  July  plowed  up  twenty  one  acres 
for  wheat.  Eleven  acres  of  this  was  the  same  that  had 
yielded  the  twenty-two  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre,  and 
the  balance  was  clover  stubble  and  included  the  seven 
acres  of  land  that  grew  the  poor  wheat  crop  in  1877.  I 
should  not  have  plowed  the  eleven  acres  but  on  account 
of  a  dry  spring  we  failed  to  get  a  stand  of  clover.  We 
hauled  out  manure  and  top-dressed  the  part  of  the  eleven 
acres  that  had  not  been  manured  the  preceding  year. 
Our  wheat  crop  was  good,  averaging  over  twenty  bush- 
els per  acre,  but  that   on  the   clover  stubble  was  very 


MY  OWN  EXPERIENCE.  ,  81 

much  heavier  than  that  on  the  wheat  stubble  where  the 
manure  had  been  applied,  and  we  had  a  fine  stand  of 
clover  on  the  entire  field. 

The  fifty  acres  of  land  is  now  divided  into  two  fields. 
The  broken  part,  which  has  never-failing  springs,  is 
seeded  down  for  permanent  pasture,  and  we  have  this 
fall,  1881,  sown  twenty-five  acres  of  wheat  on  the  level 
part,  and  it  promises  well  for  a  crop.  I  think  I  have 
fully  doubled  the  value  of  the  plow  land,  and  notwith- 
standing the  first  crops  grown  were  so  poor,  the  land 
has  paid  a  fair  interest  on  capital  invested.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  in  the  short  space  of  four  years,  a  piece  of 
land  so  worn  as  to  be  of  little  value,  has,  by  tileing,  ro- 
tation, a  moderate  use  of  manure,  commercial  fertilizers 
and  clover,  been  brought  to  a  condition  of  reasonable 
fertility,  and  at  the  same  time  has  yielded  crops  that 
have  paid  the  cost  of  the  improvement. 


CHAPTEK    VIII. 


HIRED  HELP. 


With  all  modern  improvements  there  is  still  enough 
work  to  do  on  the  farm  to  make  the  "  hired  help  "  prob- 
lem one  not  easy  to  solve.  If  the  farmer  determines  to 
do  without  hired  help,  he  is  pretty  sure  to  overwork  and 
neglect  many  things  that  are  necessary.  One  man  on  a 
farm  of  any  size  is  not  enough,  for  there  are  so  many 
jobs  to  be  done  around  the  house  and  barn,  in  the  gar- 
den, repairing  fences,  making  errands  to  town,  etc.,  that 
the  team  must  stand  idle  much  of  the  time  or  these  nec- 
essary things  be  neglected.  The  farmer  who  attempts 
to  do  all  his  farm  work  and  care  for  his  stock,  will  have 
no  time  or  heart  for  anything  else.  He  will  be  too 
wearied  to  read  or  even  to  converse  when  night  comes; 
and  life  will  have  little  meaning  to  him.  His  lot  will  be 
harder  than  that  of  a  day  laborer,  for  in  addition  to  his 
work  he  will  have  the  care  and  responsibility  of  the  farm 
resting  upon  him. 

There  is  still  another  view  of  this  subject.  The  world 
is  full  of  people  who  can  never  rise  above  the  condition 
of  laborers,  and  who  are  dependent  for  support  upon  the 
labor  of  their  hands,  and  it  is  wiser  and  better  than 
charity,  to  give  employment  to  such.  Every  man  who 
gives  to  another  employment  at  a  fair  compensation,  is 
a  public  benefactor,  and  has  a  right  to  make  a  profit 
from  the  labor  so  employed. 

No  one  can  hope  to  acquire  much  propert}^  simply  by 


HIRED  HELP.  83 

his  own  manual  labor.  It  is  only  as  he  has  the  capacity 
to  employ  and  direct  the  labor  of  others  that  he  can  ex- 
pect to  realize  a  competency. 

I  believe  the  Bible  clearh^  teaches  the  duty  of  making 
money.  It  is  taught  in  the  parable  of  the  talents,  and 
when  we  are  exhorted  to  be  "diligent  in  business,"  it 
becomes  both  a  duty  and  a  privilege  to  use  our  ability 
in  making  money.  The  more  labor  we  can  profitably 
-employ  on  our  farms,  then,  the  better  it  is  for  our  fami- 
lies and  the  communit3\ 

But  there  is  another  side  to  this  question,  and  that 
is  the  care  and  labor  which  must  often  come  upon  the 
wife  from  bringing  hired  help  into  the  house  to  board, 
and  thus  increasing  the  size  of  her  famil}^  No  success  in 
farming,  or  increase  in  wealth,  will  pay  the  man  for 
working  his  wife  into  the  grave,  or  breaking  down  her 
health.  It  is  better  that  the  farmer  should  hire  married 
men  who  will  board  themselves,  if  his  wife  is  not  able 
to  do  the  work;  and  this  can  often  be  done  as  cheapl}^ 
as  hiring  single  men,  if  you  can  furnish  the  man  a  house 
find  garden. 

In  any  case,  I  believe  that  it  is  best  to  pay  fair  wages. 
I  doubt  if  anything  is  made  in  hiring  a  man  by  jewing 
him  down  to  the  lowest  point.  The  man  who  feels  that 
he  has  been  treated  badh'  in  the  bargain  made,  will  not 
be  likely  to  work  with  much  enthusiasm. 

While  I  would  advise  that  a  memorandum  be  made, 
covering  all  the  points  of  contract,  experience  has  taught 
me  that  it  is  not  wise  to  make  a  contract  for  a  given 
time.  I  do  not  want  to  be  obliged  to  keep  a  hand  that 
proves  dishonest,  immoral  or  inefficient;  and  I  do  not 
want  a  hand  bound  to  me  who  is  dissatisfied.  I  think 
it  better  to  have  it  so  the  relation  can  be  severed  by 
either  part}^  at  any  time.     I  like,  however,  the  plan  of  a. 


S4  SUCCESS   IN    FARMING. 

bonus  in  case  a  hand  is  trusty  and  faithful ;  but  it  should 
be  a  bonus  and  not  wages  which  he  can  claim. 

Suppose  that  a  hand  is  hired  for  eight  months  at  $16- 
a  month,  with  a  memorandum  that  either  may  terminate 
the  engagement  on  a  week's  notice.  After  the  bargain 
is  made,  you  say  to  him:  "If  I  find  you  faithful  and 
obliging,  I  shall  pay  you  ten  cents  a  day  extra  for  every 
day  you  work.  If  I  do  not  find  jou  so,  I  shall  not  keep- 
you;  so  if  you  work  for  me  until  the  eight  months  are 
expired,  you  will  get  this  amount."  By  doing  this,  you 
are  giving  him  a  motive  to  do  his  best.  The  extra  ten 
cents  a  day  will  amount  to  quite  a  sum  in  the  eight 
months — enough  to  buy  a  good  suit  of  clothes. 

It  is  wise  to  have  a  frank  and  full  understanding  with 
a  work-hand  at  the  start,  as  to  what  you  expect  of  him ; 
and  what  must,  and  must  not,  be  done.  For  example^ 
some  hands  are  cruel  to  horses.  It  is  better  to  tell  a 
hand  at  the  start  that  your  team  is  not  to  be  whipped. 
Some  3^oung  men  think  they  have  a  right  to  go  to  town 
every  night,  and  come  into  the  house  at  midnight,  dis- 
turbing the  family,  or  get  back  at  breakfast-time  in  the 
morning,  after  the  chores  are  done.  If  you  do  not  choose 
to  permit  these  things,  it  should  be  so  understood  in  the 
beginning.  Where  two  or  more  hands  are  kept  on  the 
farm,  there  is  often  trouble  and  jealousy  as  to  who  shall 
drive  the  team,  or  as  to  what  particular  work  shall  be 
done  by  each.  All  these  matters  should  be  talked  over 
in  the  beginning,  and  put  in  the  memorandum. 

If  you  expect  a  farm-hand  to  do  any  uncommon  work, 
such  as  ditching,  well-digging,  or  quarrying  stone,  it 
should  be  talked  over  and  fully  understood,  or  else  he 
should  have  extra  pay  for  it. 

It  would  be  well  to  say  that  in  haying,  or  harvest,  or 
occasionally  when  some  job  was  pressing,  you   should 


HIRED  HELP. 


85 


Trant  extra  hours  work,  but  that  jon  would  always  make 
them  up  by  stopping  work  early  on  special  occasions. 
The  first  thing  necessar^^  to  get  along  pleasantly  with 
hired  help,  is  a  perfect  understanding  between  the  par- 
ties, and  all  that  is  necessary  afterwards  is,  to  keep  in 
mind  the  "  Golden  Rule." 

A  good  employer  goes  far  towards  making  a  good  hired 
hand. 

On  a  farm  where  but  one  team  is  kept,  b}^  keeping  a 
hired  hand,  the  husband  can  have  leisure  to  do  much  to 
relieve  the  wife.  He  can  draw  the  water,  carry  in  the 
wood,  gather  the  vegetables,  and  do  many  things  which 
w^ill  save  the  extra  steps  which  wear  out  the  wife  and 
break  her  constitution.  When  extra  work  is  caused  by 
the  hired  man,  unless  good  help  can  be  found  for  the 
wife,  the  husband  should  consider  it  his  duty  to  help  her. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  having  a  hired  man  on 
the  farm,  so  that  in  an  emergency  you  can  do  extra 
work.  There  often  comes  a  week  of  wet  weather,  so 
that  the  ground  cannot  be  stirred  in  the  growing  season. 
When  the  weather  becomes  settled  and  the  land  ready 
to  work,  ever3thing  is  pushing.  The  weeds  have  started, 
^nd  every  foot  of  land  under  cultivation  needs  imme- 
diate attention.  Perhaps  a  field  of  clover  or  wheat  is 
almost  ready  to  cut.  Under  such  circumstances,  a  day's 
ivork  is  often  worth  five  dollars,  and  as  others  are  pushed 
as  well,  you  may  not  be  able  to  get  help,  unless  you  have 
it  permanently. 

There  is  one  way  of  getting  along  without  hired  help, 
and  that  is  by  renting  a  part  or  all  the  fields  for  grain 
rent.  I  make  a  broad  distinction  between  renting  the 
farm  and  renting  the  fields.  With  human  nature  what 
it  is,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  a  tenant  who  will 
keep  a  farm  in  good  condition  if  left  in  sole  possession. 


S6  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

The  farmer  who  remains  on  his  farm  and  rents  out  fields^ 
"whether  for  grain  or  money  rent,  keeps  control  of  the 
land,  and  is  on  the  farm  to  see  that  everything  goes 
right.  I  like  the  plan  of  renting  on  the  thirds,  the  land- 
lord furnishing  team,  tools  and  seed,  and  the  tenant  the 
labor.  This  gives  a  young  man  a  better  chance  for  a 
start  in  life,  and  as  he  has  an  interest  in  the  crop, 
he  will  naturally  be  more  energetic  and  pushing  than  if 
hired.  The  farmer  who  wishes  to  try  the  experiment  of 
renting,  does  not  need  to  sell  off  his  teams  if  he  rents  in 
this  way,  and  if  he  is  not  pleased  with  it,  can  take  the 
farm  back  under  his  own  management  without  being- 
obliged  to  buy  teams  and  implements  again.  The  farmer 
may  not  make  quite  so  much  money  who-  manages  his- 
farm  in  this  way  as  if  he  worked  it  all  himself,  but  he 
will  enjo}^  more  of  life  and  will  be  likely  to  keep  hi& 
farm  in  better  condition;  and  if  he  reserves  ten  or  fif- 
teen acres  of  his  richest  land  on  which  he  will  do  his 
best  to  grow  heavy  crops,  he  will  not  be  in  danger  of 
falling  into  habits  of  idleness,  and  will  probably  find  hi& 
profits  as  great  at  the  end  of  the  year  as  when  he  had 
the  worry  and  care  of  the  entire  farm. 

On  a  good  farm  I  think  an  energetic  }■  oung  man  can 
Tisuall}^  farming  on  ihe  thirds,  make  double  what  he  can 
working  by  the  month,  and  he  will  be  more  independent. 
Many  of  our  wealthy  and  successful  farmers  began  life 
in  this  way. 

This  matter  of  hired  help  or  renting  out  our  lands,  is 
one  of  great  importance,  and  one  in  which  the  farmer 
should  always  counsel  with  his  wife,  for  her  interest  and 
comfort  are  often  more  concerned  in  the  matter  than  his, 
and  I  believe  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  her  judgment 
would  be  better. 


CHAPTEK     IX 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 

I  doubt  whether  the  young  farmers  of  to-day  appreci- 
ate what  progress  has  been  made  in  agricultural  imple- 
ments. They  of  course  understand  how  perfect  and  well 
adapted  to  the  work  are  the  numberless  inventions  which 
make  the  term  "farm  drudgery"  almost  a  thing  of  the 
past ;  but  they  can  scarcely  realize  that  only  a  generation 
ago  it  was  common  for  a  large  farm  to  be  managed  with 
so  few  implements  that  twenty-five  dollars  would  be  an 
extravagant  price  for  the  lot. 

Good  crops  were  grown  on  the  virgin  soil  when  a 
shovel  plow  and  clumsy  iron  tooth  harrow  were  the  only 
implements  used,  if  we  except  a  ponderous  hoe  made  by 
the  blacksmith,  with  which  the  sprouts  around  the 
stumps  were  cut  down.  Even  when  inventive  genius 
first  turned  attention  to  the  wants  of  the  farmer,  success 
was  only  partial,  for  the  first  reapers  were  clumsy  horse- 
killing  affairs  requiring  four  horses  and  two  men  to  do 
less  work  less  perfectly  than  the  self-raker  of  to-day  does 
with  two  horses  and  one  man,  not  to  speak  of  the  self- 
binder.  The  first  corn-planter  hardly  foreshadowed 
those  that  were  to  come,  and  when  in  ransacking  some 
barn-loft  we  find  one  of  these  old  implements  hidden 
away,  they  need  to  be  labeled  to  enable  one  who  has 
never  seen  them  to  know  what  they  were  designed  for. 

While  with  the  improvement  in  agricultural  imple- 
ments more  capital  is  required  to  manage  the  farm,  bet- 


88  StJCCESS   IN    FARMING. 

ter  culture  for  the  farm,  and  I  may  add  for  the  farmer 
and  his  famil}^,  is  made  possible.  The  life  of  the  farmer 
need  no  longer  be  that  unvarying  round  of  drudgery  it 
was  a  generation  ago,  for  more  can  now  be  accomplished 
in  one  day  than  could  be  then  in  two,  and  certainly  it  is 
the  farmer's  own  fault  if  he  do  not  take  time  to  cultivate 
his  mind. 

One  thing  seems  to  be  settled,  and  that  is,  that  all  the 
demands  of  the  farmer  can  be  met  by  the  inventive 
genius  of  the  age,  and  there  is  no  operation  of  the  farm 
but  what  can  be  done,  or  at  least  assisted,  by  machinery. 
The  prophec}^  of  to-day  becomes  the  reality  of  to-morrow; 
the  progress  of  the  past  generation  is  more  than  that  of 
the  five  thousand  j^ears  preceding  it.  The  farmer  has 
Ibut  to  make  known  a  want  and  it  is  met. 

I  cannot  attempt  to  catalogue  the  implements  in  use 
on  the  farm ;  doubtless  there  are  man}^  which  I  have 
never  seen,  and  it  is  not  the  design  of  this  article  to  de- 
scribe them  in  detail.  I  wish  simply  to  give  a  few  prac- 
tical hints  on  the  matter. 

Although  it  requires  quite  an  amount  of  capital  to  buy 
farm  implements,  there  is  one  great  saving  connected 
with  their  use.  One  man  and  team  can  do  as  much  work 
and  do  it  better,  than  two  men  and  teams  could  without 
them,  and,  as  the  extra  man  and  team  must  be  boarded, 
this  goes  far  to  compensate  for  the  cost  of  the  machinery. 

In  bu^^ing  farm  implements  we  must  keep  in  mind 
several  qualifications:  such  as  strength,  durability, 
adaptation  to  our  farms  and  the  work  we  wish  to 
accomplish.  Good  implements  will  be  found  cheapest 
in  the  long  run  and  although  the  reader  has  noticed 
that  I  have  advised  economy,  and  held  up  debt  as  a 
monster  evil  to  be  shunned,  I  believe  that  it  would 
be  wise  to  borrow   money  if  necessary  and  bu}^   good 


FARM   IMPLEMENTS.  89 

new  implements  rather  than  farm  with  poor  second-hand. 

Be  sure  you  need  an  implement  before  you  buy  it. 
There  are  farmers  who  allow  oily  tongued  agents  to  ca- 
jole tliem  into  purchasing  every  new  thing  that  comes 
along,  until  they  have  on  hand  machinery  for  which  they 
have  no  use  and  which  is  a  disadvantage  to  them. 

There  is  a  fine  field  for  co-operation  in  the  ownership 
or  use  of  agricultural  machinery.  Many  implements 
will  answer  for  two  neighboring  farmers  as  well  as  for 
■one,  and  by  a  mutual  agreement  they  may  effect  quite  a 
saving.  In  most  cases  it  would  be  better  that  each 
should  own  a  part  of  the  implements,  and  exchange 
rather  than  to  have  a  joint  ownership  in  each  implement. 
For  example:  if  one  buys  a  reaper,  the  other  can  buy  a 
wheat  drill,  horse  rake,  and  corn-planter  which  will  cost 
a  like  sum.  One  can  buy  the  roller,  and  the  other  a 
disc  or  some  other  one  of  the  improved  harrows. 

Any  one  of  these  implements  is  sufficient  for  two 
farmers  if  they  have  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
acres  of  land  each,  and  with  a  fair  understanding  and 
agreement,  there  need  not  be  any  trouble  in  their  co- 
operative use. 

A  practical  point  in  which  many  farmers  fail  is  the 
care  of  tools.  If  expensive  implements  are  left  exposed 
to  the  weather  the  loss  and  deterioration  from  this  cause 
will  be  much  greater  than  from  use.  There  should  be  a 
place  for  them,  and  they  stored  in  it  when  out  of  use. 
It  is  better  usually  to  build  a  shed  for  this  purpose, 
than  to  to  keep  them  in  the  barn,  but  whatever  place  is 
assigned  them  see  that  they  are  kept  there.  I  would 
recommend  painting  with  crude  petroleum  ail  the  wood 
of  farm  implements,  it  costs  but  a  trifle,  and  wood  work 
thoroughly  saturated  with  it  will  be  uninjured  b}^  ex- 
posure to  the  weather,  and  as  all  our  implements  must 


90  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

Ije  exposed  to  some  extent  this  painting  will  be  found 
profitable. 

One  piece  of  machinery  I  think  many  farmers  might 
profitably  own,  is  a  small  thrashing  machine.  There  are 
now  made  excellent  two-horse  thrashers,  the  cost  of 
which  is  comparatively  small,  and  with  which  a  farmer 
can — with  the  regular  help  of  the  farm,  and  in  the  bad 
weather  of  winter,  thrash  his  own  grain.  He  can  thus 
save  the  worry,  haste  and  hard  work  of  "thrashing  day" 
— and  remove  one  of  the  greatest  terrors  of  woman's 
work  upon  the  farm — feeding  an  army  of  thrashermen. 
When  a  farm  is  too  small  to  justify  the  purchase  of  a 
machine,  a  suitable  arrangement  could  often  be  made 
and  two  or  three  farmers  hold  one  in  partnership. 

The  light  of  the  present  time  shows  that  co-operation 
or  mutual  help,  is  to  be  one  of  the  great  means  for  in- 
creasing the  profits  of  the  farm,  and  relieving  the  bur- 
dens connected  with  farm  life. 

It  might  seem  almost  unnecessary  work  to  call  the 
attention  of  farmers  to  the  importance  of  having  imple- 
ments and  machinery  in  condition  to  do  their  best  work,, 
but  unfortunately  the  number  of  farmers  who  ma}^  be 
daily  seen  wasting  their  strength  and  the  strength  of 
their  teams  and  work  hands  with  machines  that  work 
hard  for  lack  of  a  little  oil  or  adjustment,  or  with  tools 
that  need  the  grindstone,  shows  the  necessity  of  consid- 
ering the  matter. 

Solomon  said :  "  If  the  iron  be  blunt,  and  he  do  not 
whet  the  edge,  then  must  he  put  to  more  strength,"  but 
some  farmers — principally  of  the  class,  I  suppose,  who 
expect  to  make  their  way  through  the  world  by  muscu- 
lar strength  rather  than  by  the  exercise  of  thought,  seem 
to  prefer  "  putting  to  more  strength  "  rather  than  put 
the  tool  or  machine  in  order. 


FAKM    IMPLEMENTS.  91 

No  labor  pays  a  larger  profit  than  that  expended  in 
putting  machinery  in  order  and  getting  tools  sharp. 
A  good  grindstone  well  hung,  and  set  in  some  place 
where  it  will  be  protected  from  the  weather  and  can  be 
readily  used  should  be  regarded  as  indispensable  on  the 
farm.  Axes,  hoes,  mower  knives,  scythes,  and  all  cut- 
ting tools  should  be  kept  with  keen  edges.  No  man  can 
earn  his  wages  working  with  a  dull  tool.  Plows  should 
be  sharpened  whenever  they  require  it,  and  the  time  so 
spent  will  be  time  saved.  One  suggestion  here:  On 
farms  where  it  is  not  thought  worth  while  to  keep  more 
than  one  breaking  plow,  it  will  be  well  to  buy  the  sec- 
ond before  the  first  is  entirely  worn  out. — Then  in  pressing 
seasons  the  old  plow  can  be  called  into  service  while  the 
other  is  being  sent  to  the  shop  to  be  sharpened. 

Mowers,  reapers,  drills,  wagons,  fanning  mills,  cutting 
boxes,  buggies,  and  even  the  wheel  barrow,  one  of  the 
most  necessary  and  useful  implements  on  the  farm^ 
should  never  be  allowed  to  suffer  from  lack  of  oil.  Not 
only  is  machine  grease  cheaper  than  "  elbow  grease " 
but  a  machine  will  wear  more  in  a  day's  work  when  need- 
ing oil,  than  in  a  week  if  properly  lubricated.  Use  the 
best  oil; — for  most  machinery  and  for  buggy  and  wagon 
spindles,  castor  oil  is  the  cheapest  and  best.  Do  not  buy 
this  of  your  druggist  at  50  cents  a  pint,  a  second  grade 
can  be  purchased  wholesale  at  from  50  to  80  cents  a  gal- 
lon which  is  as  good  as  the  best  for  a  lubricant. 

An  occasional  going  over  a  machine  with  a  wrench, 
tightening  all  nuts  that  have  become  loose,  will  add 
greatly  to  its  longevit}^  Whenever  a  piece  of  machinery 
begins  to  rattle,  destructive  wear  is  going  on  with  great 
rapidity.  As  a  rule,  the  more  silently  any  piece  of  ma- 
chinery works  the  better  work  it  is  doing.* 

*This  rule  is  applicable  to  men  as  to  machinery,      b.  S.  t. 


52 


SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 


"When  a  nut  shows  a  disposition  to  constantly  come 
loose,  a  leather  washer  should  be  placed  under  it,  and  the 
nut  screwed  tight  home  on  that,  and  as  a  final  resort,  for 
a  badly  fitting  nut,  or  in  an  emergenc}^  a  piece  of  twine 
may  be  wrapped  several  times  around  the  bolt  beyond 
the  nut  and  tightly  tied. 

Implements  when  about  to  be  put  away  for  the  season 
should  be  carefully  cleaned  and  overhauled.  Don't  stand 
them  away  with  all  the  dirt  of  service  on  them.  It  is 
also  a  good  plan  before  you  need  any  particular  imple- 
ment to  go  and  examine  it  and  see  it  is  all  ready.  This 
may  save  you  serious  delay  and  loss  in  the  working 
season. 

Implements  used  in  the  soil,  such  as  plows,  hoes, 
spades,  etc.,  should  never  be  left  standing,  even  for  a 
night,  with  the  soil  adhering  to  them.  It  rapidly  causes 
them  to  become  rough  and  rusty — making  them  difficult 
to  work  with  or  to  clean. 

The  man  who  would  have  success  in  farming,  should 
take  as  much  pride  in  the  condition  of  his  implements  as 
in  the  condition  of  his  stock. 


CHAPTEE    X 


WHEAT. 


In  large  areas  of  our  country  wheat  is  the  most  im- 
portant crop  to  the  farmer.  It  is  easil}^  stored,  with  but 
little  risk  of  damage  if  he  wish  to  hold  it  for  an  advance^ 
and  is  always  in  demand  and  brings  the  cash  in  market. 
It  is  not  as  bulky  as  corn,  and  as  its  averagg  price  is 
more  than  twice  as  much  per  bushel,  a  team  will  draw 
to  market  about  four  times  as  many  dollars'  worth  of 
wheat  as  of  corn  in  a  given  time. 

Wheat  can  be  grown  successfully  on  rolling  lands 
which  would  soon  be  ruined  by  washing  if  kept  in  corn, 
and  we  can  grow  a  clover  crop  with  it  to  enrich  the  land. 
All  these  considerations  make  wheat  a  popular  and  im- 
portant crop  to  the  farmer. 

Probably  there  is  no  crop  which  gives  as  good  returns 
for  manure  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  as  this. 
There  has  been  great  improvement  in  the  preparation  of 
seed  bed  among  the  farmers  of  Ohio  during  the  past  few 
years,  and  it  has  resulted  m  a  large  increase  in  the  yield 
per  acre.  I  have  examined  the  statistics  of  Ohio,  as  it 
is  one  of  the  best  winter  wheat  States,  and  I  see  that  for 
eight  3^ears,  beginning  with  1858,  there  was  a  succession 
of  poor  crops  and  a  great  falling  off  in  the  yield  per  acre. 
Then  for  five  years  there  was  a  large  gain,  there  being  a 
series  of  favorable  3-ears.  From  1872  to  1876  we  had  a 
series  of  unfavorable  seasons,  the  crop  of  1876  in  Ohio 
aggregating,  in  round  numbers,  but  15,000,000  bushels. 


94  HUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

with  an  average  of  10  bushels  per  acre.  In  1877,  we 
grew  27,000,000,  with  an  average  per  acre  of  nearly  16 
bushels.  1879  gave  us  35,000,000,  with  an  average  per 
acre  of  16  bushels.  I  have  referred  to  these  statistics 
simply  to  illustrate  one  fact,  which  is  this:  A  series  of 
good  years  leads  to  the  sowing  of  a  lai'ge  acreage  of 
wheat,  and  much  is  badly  put  in  and  on  poor  land;  and 
when  an  unfavorable  year  comes,  the  average  3deld  per 
acre  is  cut  down  largely  by  the  crops  on  these  poor, 
badl}'  prepared  fields.  On  the  other  hand,  a  series  of 
poor  crops  not  only  causes  a  falling  off  in  acreage,  but 
leads  to  a  more  careful  preparation  of  the  soil.  There  is 
no  crop  *rown  on  the  farm  that  pays  so  well  for  extra 
work  as  this,  and  it  is  encouraging  to  know  there  are 
farmers  who  grow  paying  crops  through  bad  as  well  as 
good  3'ears. 

How  can  we  insure  uniform  and  profitable  wheat  crops? 
There  are  several  points  to  be  attended  to,  one  of  the 
most  important  of  which  is  drainage.  If  the  land  can 
be  thoroughly  under-drained  it  will  be  best:  but  where 
this  cannot  be  done,  we  must  accomplish  what  we  can 
by  surface  drainage.  B\'  plowing  properly  and  opening- 
furrows  in  the  right  direction,  heavy  crops  may  be  grown 
on  land  which  would  not  give  a  crop  worth  harvesting 
where  this  was  neolected.  Lav  it  down  as  a  rule,  that  a 
profitable  wheat  crop  cannot  be  grown  on  land  where  the 
water  will  stand.  Dr.  Townshend,  in  a  lecture  before 
the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  1879,  said: 

''  I  have  often  harvested  over  thirt)'  bushels  of  wheat  to  the 
acre  on  nearly  flat  clay  soils  by  rounding  the  lands  and  opening 
the  furrows.  If  any  one  objects  to  these  furrows  as  a  nuisance, 
I  will  answer  that  the  greatest  of  all  nuisances  is  a  poor  crop." 

He  further  states : 

"  I  one  year  underdrained  a  part  of  a  field  at  a  cost  of  $22.50 
per  acre,  and  at  harvest  it  yielded  twentv  bushels  more  per 
acre  than  the  undrained  part  of  the  field,  and  as  the  crop 


WHEAT.  95 

brought  $1.25  per  bushel,  the  extra  yield  paid  all  the  expense 
of  draining,  and  left  me  a  little  in  pocket." 

The   next  point  in  growing   uniform  and   profitable 
wheat  crops  is 

PREPARATION  OF  SEED-BED, 

And  there  is  no  more  important  point  connected  with  the 
crop.  The  maxim,  "  Tillage  is  manure,"  holds  good  here 
if  anywhere.  The  best  seed-bed  for  wheat  is  one  that  is 
compact  below  and  fine  and  mellovv  at  the  surface;  and 
to  get  this,  it  is  essential  that  we  plow  early,  and  culti- 
vate frequently.  I  believe  it  would  often  be  economy  to 
pay  five  dollars  an  acre  to  have  a  wheat  field  plowed  in 
Jul}^,  rather  than  to  have  it  done  for  nothing  the  middle 
of  September.  The  farmer  who  has  land  to  break  should 
so  arrange  his  work  that  everything  else  could  wait  if 
the  land  is  fit  to  plow  early.  After  a  heavy  rain  in  July 
or  August,  it  is  quite  often  the  case  that  there  will  follow 
a  cool,  cloudy  spell  of  weather,  when  everything  is  favor- 
able for  plowing.  The  land  being  moist  and  the  weather 
cool,  a  team  can  plow  twelve,  or  even  fourteen,  hours  a 
day  easier  than  they  can  ten  a  few  days  later,  when  the 
weather  has  become  hot  and  the  land  dry.  The  wise 
farmer  will  improve  such  an  opportunity  to  the  utmost. 
Another  important  thing  in  preparing  the  seed-bed 
Is  to  roll  as  soon  as  plowed,  and  I  would  always  advise 
this  unless  the  season  was  very  wet  and  we  were  likely 
to  have  heav}^  rains  to  settle  the  land.  If  a  good  roller 
follow  the  plow  each  half  day^,  the  land  can  be  pulver- 
ized and  packed  down  as  long  as  there  is  moisture 
enough  to  plow.  If  it  is  allowed  to  dry  after  plowing 
and  before  rolling,  it  is  often  weeks  before  there  is  rain 
enough  so  that  it  can  be  put  in  good  condition ;  but  if 
rolled  at  once,  a  light  rain  will  make  it  fit  for  seeding. 
The  farmer  rarely,  if  ever,  errs  b}^  putting  too  much 


96  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

work  on  his  wheat  land ;  and  as  with  most  of  the  imple- 
ments we  use,  we  can  go  over  a  large  surface  in  a  day,  it 
is  not  expensive.  I  have  gone  over  a  wheat  field  with 
harrow,  roller  and  plank  drag  as  many  as  seven  times 
between  plowing  and  seeding  time,  and  been  well  paid 
for  my  labor.  I  have  seen  instances  where  a  field  was 
partly  plowed  and  pulverized  in  July,  and  then  on  ac- 
count of  dry  weather  the  remainder  left  until  September, 
and  the  diff"erence  in  favor  of  the  early  plowed  and  pul- 
verized part  was  more  than  ten  bushels  per  acre. 

When  the  season  is  such — as  is  sometimes  the  case  — 
that  you  must  plow  late  and  sow  immediately,  I  would 
always  recommend  shallow  plowing,  for  the  land  will  not 
have  time  to  settle  so  as  to  make  a  solid  seed-bed,  and 
you  will  not  be  as  likely  to  pulverize  eight  inches  well  as 
you  will  four.  There  are  two  reasons  why  wheat  does 
not  do  well  on  a  deep,  loose  seed-bed:  One,  that  it  is 
likely  to  be  covered  too  deepl}^,  and  the  other,  that  it 
is  more  likely  to  freeze  out,  partly  because  the  loose  earth 
holds  more  water,  and  partty  because  the  roots  have  not 
a  firm  hold  in  the  loose  soil. 

Where  wheat  follows  corn,  I  would  not,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, break  the  land  up,  because  the  plowing  un- 
der of  the  corn  butts  would  prevent  getting  the  land 
l^acked  sufficiently.  I  have  seen  many  failures  of  the 
wheat  crop  from  this  cause.  If  obliged  to  plow  late,  b}^ 
all  means  remove  the  clover  or  weeds  from  the  land  be- 
fore plowing.  A  heavy  growth  of  either  msiy  be  plowed 
under  in  Jul}^,  for  if  you  manage  the  land  well  they  will 
decay  and  allow  it  to  settle;  but  this  will  not  be  the  case 
if  not  plowed  until  September,  and  the\'  will  greatly  dam- 
age, and  often  ruin,  the  crop.  In  m}^  judgment,  it  would 
and  be  better  to  be  a  week  later  in  getting  the  wheat  sown 
have  the  weeds  or  clover  removed,  than  to  plow  them  under. 


^\HEAT.  97 

,  1  haTe  never  found  an  implement  which  gave  better 
satisfaction  in  preparing  the  land  for  wheat  than  the  disc 
harrow.  This  consists  of  a  number  of  steel  rolling  cut- 
ters, dished  a  little,  so  as  to  turn  a  small  furrow,  and  set 
at  an  angle  in  the  frame.  They  cut  and  pulverize  the 
surface  completely;  and  unless  it  is  very  clodd}^,  if  this 
harrow  is  passed  over  the  field  both  ways  and  followed 
by  the  plank  drag,  it  will  give  a  perfect  seed-bed.  In 
very  clodd}^  fields  the  roller  should  be  used  once  or  twice 
in  addition.  I  do  not  like  the  old-fashioned  tooth  har- 
row for  stirring  the  surface.  The  double  corn  plow, 
with  small  shovels,  does  this  well,  but  the  disc  harrow 
does  it  better  and  more  rapidlj^ 

DEPTH  OF  PLANTING. 

Some  very  careful  experiments  have  been  made  at  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Lansing,  Michigan,  concerning 
the  best  depth  for  planting,  the  result  of  which  I  give  in 
the  table  below.  The  first  column  shows  the  depth  the 
seed  was  sown;  second  column  the  number  of  daj^s  be- 
fore it  came  up;  third  column  the  proportion  of  seed 
that  grew: 

Depth.  Days.  Grew. 

3^2  ii^ch   , 11  days % 

1  inch  12      "  all 

2  inches  18     "  % 

3  inches  20     ''  % 

4  inches 21      '' % 

5  inches  22      "■  >J 

6  inches  23     ''  ig 

A  plant  from  a  seed  sown  too  deep,  and  which  comes 
up  slowly,  lacks  the  vigor  and  vitality  of  one  planted  at 
the  proper  depth.  The  best  farmers  of  the  present  day 
recommend  a  depth  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half. 

VARIETIES. 

Something  ought  to  be  said  about  varieties  in  this  ar- 
ticle, and  yet  I  know^  that  I  cannot  recommend  any  par- 

7 


98  SUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

ticnlar  variety  that  would  suit  all.  Varieties  often  run 
out  and  become  unprofitable,  and  the  introduction  of  a 
new  variety  often  increases  the  yield  five,  and  sometimes 
ten,  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  introduction  of  the  Fultz 
Wheat  to  Southern  Ohio  was  worth  an  incalculable  sum 
to  our  farmers,  as  it  largely  increased  the  yield.  It  has 
proved  the  most  profitable  wheat  grown  for  the  last  six 
years,  and  is  still  holding  its  place.  This  matter  of  va- 
riety is  of  so  much  importance  that  I  would  recommend 
all  large  wheat-growers  to  experiment  with  one  or  two 
new  varieties  each  year,  if  they  can  hear  of  those  which 
promise  well;  but  I  would  confine  the  experiment  to  a 
single  acre.  If  it  does  well,  it  gives  you  enough  seed  for 
the  coming  year  for  quite  a  breadth,  and  if  poorly,  it  is 
surely  enough.  I  never  discard  a  tried  variety  for  a  new 
one  until  the  latter  has  been  well  tested.  A  single  bushel 
of  wheat,  with  expressage  from  a  distance,  is  often  ex- 
pensive; but  if  3^ou  get  a  really  good  variety  that  your 
neighbors  will  want  for  seed,  it  will  pa}^  you  largely. 

EARLY  AND  LATE  SEEDING. 

I  have  referred  to  the  time  of  seeding  when  speaking 
of  the  preparation  of  ground.  Some  of  the  most  success- 
ful wheat-growers  of  my  acquaintance  sow  the  last  week 
in  August  and  the  first  of  September,  and  aside  from 
the  fact  that  there  is  more  danger  from  the  Hessian  fly 
to  this  early  sowing,  it  is  to  be  commended.  The  fly, 
however,  rarely  injures  wheat  that  is  strong  and  vigor- 
ous. I  should  always,  if  possible,  have  my  land  in  con- 
dition to  sow  by  the  first  of  September,  and  be  governed 
by  the  weather  whether  to  sow  at  that  time  or  wait  a 
little.  In  looking  over  the  record  in  my  diary  of  mj^ 
wheat  crops  for  the  last  seven  ^^ears,  I  find  my  best  crop 
was  sown  the.  first  v/eek  in  September.  But  while  in 
general  I  would  advise  early  j^lanting,  I  would  not  com- 


WHEAT.  99 

mend  it  at  the  expense  of  a  well  prepared  seed-bed. 
Plant  earl}' if  you  can  plant  early  and  well;  but  plant 
late  well,  rather  than  earl}^  and  badly.  My  heaviest  crop 
•of  wheat  in  1880 — over  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre — was 
on  a  field  sown  October  8tli;  and  a  neighbor  of  mine,  a 
few  years  ago,  harvested  thirty-eight  bushels  per  acre 
from  a  field  sown  after  the  middle  of  October.  I  do  not 
quote  these  instances  to  encourage  late  seeding  but  to  show 
that  when,  for  any  reason,  early  sowing  is  impossible, 
very  good  returns  ma}^  be  obtained  by  observing  the 
rules  for  such  cases  in  the  preceding  sections,  namety: 
Remove,  by  burning  or  raking,  weeds  and  clover  before 
plowing;  plow  shallow  and  pulverize  thoroughly. 

I  have  for  some  j^ears  sown  one  bushel  or  less  of 
seed  to  the  acre,  and  feel  quite  sure  that  with  the  Fultz 
variety  from  three  pecks  to  one  bushel  will  produce  all 
the  land  can  support.  When  we  remember  that  an  av- 
erage head  of  wheat  contains  from  thirty  to  forty  grains, 
^nd  that  everj^  grain  that  grows  must  produce  one  head 
if  anything,  and  may  produce  several,  it  is  evident  that 
when  we  sow  a  bushel  and  a  half  and  reap  but  fifteen, 
that  two-thirds  of  our  seed  has  been  wasted,  for  even  at 
the  smallest  number  of  grains  in  a  head,  and  but  one 
head  to  a  plant,  the  yield  would  be  thirty  fold.  I  speak 
further  on  this  topic  under  the  head  of  Experiments 
with  Wheat. 

WHEAT  ON  CORX  LAND. 

In  all  localities  where  corn  is  a  leading  crop,  and 
where,  as  in  Southern  Ohio,  oats  are  rarely  profitable,  it 
is  usually  necessary,  in  order  to  bring  about  a  proper 
rotation,  to  sow  wheat  on  corn  land.  There  are  many 
who  consider  this  a  slovenly  method  of  farming,  and  I 
confess  that,  as  often  practiced,  it  is  both  slovenly  and 
unprofitable.     I  know,   however,   from  long  experience 


100  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

and  from  observing  others,  that  as  good  wheat  can  he- 
grown  on  corn  land  as  on  stubble,  and  the  expense  of 
preparing  the  seed-bed  will  be  ordinaril^^  less.  Two 
things  are  necessary  if  you  expect  to  grow  a  good  crop : 
You  must  keep  your  corn  land  free  from  weeds,  and  3'ou 
must  cut  up  the  corn.  If  these  two  rules  are  observed,^ 
you  can  prepare  an  excellent  seed-bed  at  a  little  expense 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  sa3'ing  that  a  good 
crop  of  wheat  can  never  be  grown  on  a  corn  field  that 
has  been  allowed  to  become  weedy  and  grassy,  or  when 
sown  in  standing  corn,  for  occasionally  there  may  be, 
but  more  often  it  will  fail.  What  I  do  mean  to  say  is, 
that  a  clean  corn  field,  with  the  corn  cut  off,  gives  as 
good  a  chance  for  a  wheat  crop  as  an}^  seed-bed  we  can 
make.  Some  years  since,  Mr.  L.  N.  Bonham,  agricultu- 
ral editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Commercial^  sowed  a  field  of 
bottom  land  in  wheat.  On  a  part  of  it  the  corn  was  cut 
up,  and  the  remainder  was  drilled  in  among  the  standing 
corn.  The  result  was,  fourteen  bushels  to  the  acre  on 
that  sown  in  the  corn,  and  twenty-nine  bushels  to  the 
acre  where  the  corn  was  cut  up.  The  quality  of  the  land 
was  the  same,  and  in  both  cases  it  was  well  put  in. 

As  I  have  already  said,  I  would  not,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, break  corn  land.  If  the  corn  is  tall  and 
heavy,  I  cut  high,  and  then  cut  the  butts  at  the  ground; 
but  if  the  corn  is  light  or  short,  it  may  be  cut  close 
enough  to  the  ground  so  that  the  butts  will  not  interfere 
with  the  drilling.  If  the  butts  are  long,  it  will  pay  to 
take  them  off,  for  they  will  interfere  with  drilling,  and 
also  be  in  the  way  if  joii  wish  to  glean  the  stubble.  The 
sulky  rake  will  gather  up  the  larger  part  of  them,  and 
the  remainder  can  be  picked  up  by  hand.  After  the  corn 
is  off,  I  would  advise  that  the  land  be  worked  both  ways. 
If  you  have  a  harrow  that  will  do  the  job  well,  such  as 


WHEAT.  101" 

the  disc  or  spring-tooth,  you  can  get  over  ten  acres  a 
da}',  and  thej^  will,  if  followed  by  roller  or  plank  drag, 
put  the  land  in  the  best  possible  condition.  The  next 
l)est  implement  is  the  double  corn  plow  with  small  shov- 
els, and  with  this  3'ou  can  get  over  six  or  eight  acres  a 
day.  It  may  be  gone  over  once  with  this,  and  then  cross- 
harrowed  with  a  common  harrow;  but  I  would  always 
use  the  roller  or  drag  before  drilling.  It  is  advisable 
to  plant  an  early  variety  of  corn  where  j^ou  are  intending 
to  seed  to  wheat. 

To  show  what  success  I  have  had  growing  wheat  on. 
corn  land,  I  will  make  a  few  extracts  from  my  diary: 

"  Sept.  22,  1877.  Sowed  six  acres  of  wheat  where  corn, 
liad  been  cut  up/'  This  field  averaged  twentj^-six  bush- 
els per  acre. 

'  "  Sept.  19, 1878.  Sowed  four  acres  of  wheat  on  corn  land 
at  home,  and  six  acres  on  north  farm."  The  first  made  an. 
average  of  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  last  twenty-two» 

"  Oct.  8,  1879.  Sowed  four  acres  of  wheat  where  com 
was  cut  up.  The  corn  was  very  light,  as  the  land  is  cold 
and  thin.  Manured  each  acre  diff'erently."  This  wheat 
was  not  threshed  separately,  but  there  were  one  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  shocks,  large  bind.  My  entire  crop  of 
seven  hundred  shocks,  threshed  four  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-two bushels,  and  this  would  show  an  average  of 
thirty  bushels  per  acre  for  these  four  acres. 

*'  Sept.  24,  1880.  Sowed  twelve  acres  of  wheat  on  corn 
land  on  home  farm."  This  wheat  averaged  fifteen  bush- 
els to  the  acre,  but  it  will  be  remembered  the  crop  cut  in 
1881  was  a  very  light  one  generally,  and  this  wheat  was 
very  much  better  than  ten  acres  grown  on  wheat  stub- 
ble. We  have  sown  this  fall  — 1881 — twelve  acres  of 
■wheat  on  corn  land,  which  is  looking  as  well  as  I  could 
Tvish.     It  was  sown  September  17th. 


102  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

I  have  given  these  extracts  from  my  diary,  to  show 
the  dates  at  which  I  have  been  able  to  sow  for  several- 
years,  and  the  success  I  have  had.  The  average  for  the 
four  years  is  over  twenty-two  bushels  per  acre;  and  leav- 
ing out- the  last  year,  which  was  an  exceptionally  bad  one,, 
the  average  is  over  twenty-six  bushels. 

The  principal  objection  urged  against  seeding  on  corn 
land  is  the  trouble  and  expense  of  cutting  up  the  corn, 
but  as  I  shall  speak  of  that  in  the  chapter  on  corn,  I 
will  pass  it  for  the  present. 

THE  COST  OF  WHEAT-GROWING 

Is  an  interesting  question,  and  as  it  is  but  little  trouble^ 
I  advise  every  farmer  to  keep  a  debit  and  credit  account 
with  each  wheat  field.  By  so  doing,  he  will  soon  learn  that 
the  cost  per  bushel  decreases  as  the  yield  per  acre  in- 
creases, and  I  believe  that  many  farmers  would  thus  be 
led  to  grow  fewer  acres  and  more  bushels. 

In  keeping  an  account  with  my  wheat  crops,  I  put. 
down  the  rent  of  land  at  eight  per  cent  on  the  valuation 
of  the  particular  field,  and  allow  nothing  for  taxes,  as  I 
consider  the  rent  includes  this ;  I  do  not  include  hauling 
and  threshing,  for  I  believe  the  straw  to  be  worth 
enough  to  cover  this.  When  I  use  manure  on  the  field,, 
I  charge  the  wheat  crop  with  fifty  cents  per  load,  for  al- 
though it  is  worth  more,  and  often  costs  over  $1,  a  part 
of  this  should  be  charged  to  succeeding  crops.  When  I 
use  commercial  manures,  I  charge  the  actual  cost  to  the 
wheat  crop.  I  charge  $1  per  day  for  each  man  and 
horse.  For  harvesting  I  charge  the  usual  price  per  acre 
for  the  machine,  and  actual  cost,  including  board,  for 
help  employed.  I  have  each  field  on  my  farm  valued,  so 
as  to  know  at  once  what  rent  to  charge  it.  I  shall  explain 
this  more  fully  in  the  chapter  on  Farm  Accounts.  I  be- 
^an  keeping  an  account  with  my  wheat  crops  in  1877,. 


WHEAT.  103 

and  have  a  detailed  account  with  each  crop  grown  since, 
so  that  I  can  at  a  glance  tell  the  cost,  profit  or  loss  on 
the  crop. 

To  show  what  it  has  cost  me  to  grow  wheat,  I  will 
copy  from  my  book  the  account  with  some  of  my  crops. 
I  will  begin  with  a  six-acre  field,  two  acres  of  which  was 
wheat  stubble  and  the  rest  corn  land: 

ACCOUNT  WITH  SIX- ACRE  WHEAT  FIELD. 

*' July,  1877.     Breaking  two  acres $3  00 

Working  four  acres  twice  with  double  corn  plow  4  00 

Harrowino^  and  roUino^ 6  00 

Cutting  and  picking  off*  corn  butts 5  00 

4^  bushels  of  seed  at  $1 4  50 

Drilling 2  40 

June  24,  1878.    Harvesting 9  60 

Board  of  harvest  hands    2  50 

Rent  of  land 36  00 

Total, $73  00 

The  crop  on  this  field  was  one  hundred  and  eighty 
bushels,  and  sold  for  95  cents  per  bushel,  making  $171. 
Deducting  cost  of  growing,  leaves  $98,  net  profit.  This 
makes  $16.33^  net  profit  per  acre,  and  shows  the  cost  of 
growing  per  acre,  including  rent,  to  be  $12.16f.  The 
profit,  after  allowing  8  per  cent  on  a  valuation  of  $75  per 
acre,  was  nearly  22  per  cent.  The  cost  per  bushel  was 
40^  cents. 

In  1878,  I  sowed  eleven  acres  of  wheat  on  my  north 
farm.  This  was  on  the  fifty  acres  of  thin  land  referred 
to  in  a  former  chapter.  This  land  cost  me  but  $20  per 
acre,  but  as  this  field  was  the  best  part  of  it,  I  have  val- 
ued it  at  $30  per  acre.    My  account  stands  as  follows: 

"  July  31,  1878.     Preparing  seed-bed $22  00 

Sept.  25.     Seed  wheat,  10  bushels, 9  50 

Carried  forward $31  50 


104  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

Amount  brought  over $31  50 

Drilling 4  00 

Fifty  loads  of  manure  at  50  cents 25  00 

One  barrel  bone  meal 6  00 

June  23,  1879,  Cutting,  at  60  cents  per  acre 6  60 

Five  hands  at  $1.50  per  day 7  50 

•    Board  of  help 3  00 

Eent  of  land  at  8  per  cent  on  valuation  of  $30 ...  26  40 

Total $110  00 

The  field  produced  241  bushels,  which  was  sold  from 
the  machine  for  95  cents,  making  $228.95.  Deducting 
cost,  leaves  $118.95  as  profit.  Cost  per  bushel  a  fraction 
over  45  cents.  Profit  on  value  of  land,  a  fraction  over 
36  per  cent. 

Ten  acres  of  the  same  field  was  sown  in  wheat  in 
1879,  and  the  account  as  copied  from  my  book,  stands 

thus: 

"July,  1879.     Breaking $15  00 

Rolling 3  00 

August  4.     Thirty-eight  loads  manure 19  00 

"      21.     Stirring  with  corn  plow 4  00 

"      24.     Harrowing  and  rolling 6  00 

Sept.       8.     Nine  bushels  seed  wheat 9  00 

"               Eioht  hundred  lbs  ground  bone 12  00 

Drilling 4  00 

"               Rent  of  land 24  00 

June  16,  1880,  Cutting  at  60  cents  per  acre 6  00 

"             Four  hands,  at  $2  per  day 8  00 

"             Board  of  hands 2  50 

Total, $112  50 

The  crop  made  an  average  of  fifteen  bushels  per  acre, 
and  sold  for  $1.05  per  bushel  from  the  machine,  making 
$157.50.  Deducting  cost  leaves  a  profit  of  $45 ;  cost  ot 
wheat  per  bushel  75  cents;  profit  on  land  15  per  cent. 

Lest  some  one  should  criticise  these  figures  where 
they  notice  that  in  1878  there  is  but  $22.00  charged  for 


WHEAT.  105 

preparing  seed-bed  on  eleven  acres,  and  $28,00  the  fol- 
lowing 3^ear  for  ten  acres  of  the  same  land,  I  wish  to 
give  a  word  of  explanation.  In  the  first  named  year  the 
field  was  about  half  in  corn  and  the  balance  in  sorgo, 
beans,  oats,  and  potatoes,  and  required  less  labor  than 
if  it  had  needed  to  be  broken  up.  The  next  year  I 
allowed  $1.50  per  acre  for  breaking,  which  many  will  ob- 
ject to  as  being  too  little.  In  reply  I  answer  that  we 
had  a  fine  rain  followed  by  cool,  cloudy  weather  which 
enabled  us  to  plow  two  acres  a  day.  I  have  in  all  these 
accounts  charged  actual  cost  where  it  could  be  ascer- 
tained, and  allowed  one  dollar  a  day  for  each  man  or 
thi-ee  dollars  a  day  for  a  man  and  team.  When  our  reg- 
ular farm  hands  or  myself  helped  at  harvesting,  I  have 
charged  harvest  wages,  and  I  have  charged  twenty-five 
cents  per  meal  for  each  man  boarded  in  harvest. 

VALUE  OF  STRAW  TO  THE  FARMER. 

The  reader  will  notice  that  in  all  m}^  estimates  of  the 
€Ost  of  wheat  growing,  I  have  stopped  when  the  wheat 
was  in  the  shock.  This  is  because  I  believe  the  straw  to* 
be  worth  to  the  farmer  who  knows  how  to  properly  man- 
age it  enough  to  pay  for  hauling  and  thrashing  the  cropJ 

The  proportion  of  wheat  to  straw  will  vary  with  difi'er- 
ent  seasons  and  varieties  of  wheat,  but  as  a  general  rule 
we  shall  have  about  two  pounds  of  straw  to  one  of  grain. 
This  would  give  six  tons  of  straw  for  one  hundred  bush- 
els of  wheat.  As  the  machines  charge  from  four  to  five 
cents  per  bushel  for  thrashing,  I  think  it  a  fair  estimate 
to  call  the  entire  expense  ten  cents  a  bushel;  I  think  the 
hauling  to  the  machine  could  be  done  for  less  than  $3, 
but  we  will  call  it  that,  which  would  make  our  six  tons 
of  straw  cost  $13.  I  am  willing  to  call  it  $2.50  a  ton,  and 
this  would  allow  $2  on  each  hundred  bushels  for  taking- 
the  wheat  to  market,  and  with  the  railroad  facilities  we 


106  SUCCESS    IN  FARMING. 

now  have  this  will  often  coA^er  the  cost.  It  would  seem 
unnecessary  to  enter  into  an  argument  to  prove  that 
straw  is  worth  $2.50  per  ton  to  the  farmer.  Whether  we 
look  at  it  from  the  scientific  standpoint  comparing  its 
chemical  analysis  with  that  of  hay  and  fodder,  or  from 
the  practical  side,  it  is  certainly  worth  much  more  than 
this. 

I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  if  farmers  took  as 
good  care  of  their  wheat  straw  as  they  do  of  their  hay, 
that  it  is  worth  for  stock,  half  as  much.  I  will  make 
the  further  statement,  that  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of 
"bright  wheat  straw  fed  in  connection  with  250  pounds 
of  wheat  bran  and  250  pounds  of  corn  meal  mixed,  will 
be  worth,  for  horses  or  cattle,  as  much  or  more  than  one 
ton  of  the  best  hay.  Even  when  straw  is  stacked  in  the 
barn-yard  and  the  cattle  allowed  to  run  to  it  and  help 
themselves,  it  is  worth  for  food,  shelter,  and  manure 
more  than  $2.50  per  ton. 

Straw  is  worth  for  manure  much  more  than  a  chemi- 
cal anal3^sis  shows,  for  it  is  to  most  farmers  the  cheapest 
and  most  convenient  absorbent  the^^  can  use,  and  with- 
out it  on  many  farms  most  of  the  liquid  and  soluble 
parts  of  the  animal  manure  would  be  lost. 

EXPERIMENTS  W  ITH  WHEAT. 

During  the  last  few  years  I  have  tried  some  experi- 
ments with  wheat,  which  while  not  conclusive  in  their 
results,  have  been  of  great  interest. 

In  1877  I  sowed  two  adjoining  acres  with  wheat,  using 
one  half  bushel  of  seed  on  one  acre,  and  one  bushel  on 
the  other.  The  land  was  strong  and  in  good  condition, 
and  although  the  wheat  where  the  half  bushel  was  sown 
looked  quite  thin  at  first,  before  winter  set  in  it  had 
stooled  so  that  little  if  any  difi'erence  could  be  seen.  At 
harvest  I  had  a  neighbor  to  cut  it  for  me,  and  I  told  him. 


WHEAT.  107 

and  the  binders  how  the  wheat  was  sown,  but  did  not 
tell  them  which  acre  had  the  light  seeding,  and  not  one 
of  them  could  tell.  I  shocked  the  grain,  and  found  fifty- 
two  shocks  on  one  acre  and  fifty-one  on  the  other. 
The  two  acres  thrashed  seventy  bushels.  The  next  year 
I  sowed  six  acres  using  three  pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
and  harvested  180  bushels,  an  average  of  30  bushels  to 
the  acre. 

My  first  experiment  with  bone  meal  was  in  1878,  when 
I  used  a  single  barrel,  and  as  I  could  not  get  a  fertilizer 
drill  I  sowed  it  broadcast.  On  either  side  of  it  I  used 
stable  manure,  and  through  the  center  left  a  strip  twelve 
feet  wide  unmanured.  The  land  was  heavy  clay  and 
badly  worn.  The  stable  manure  gave  the  wheat  a 
good  start  in  the  fall  so  that  it  covered  the  ground 
quite  well,  but  up  to  the  time  winter  set  in  I  saw  na 
benefit  whatever  from  the  bone  meal.  As  soon  as  spring 
opened  the  wheat  where  the  bone  was  sown  grew  luxuri- 
antly and  showed  a  dark  green,  and  the  strip  left  with- 
out any  fertilizers  was  so  poor  that  it  was  easv  to  trace 
it  when  standing  eighty  rods  away.  At  harvest  the 
wheat  where  the  bone  was  used  was  nearly  as  good  as 
where  heavily  manured  with  stable  manure,  and  was  a 
foot  taller  than  on  the  unfertilized  strip.  I  did  not  cut 
and  thrash  separately,  but  estimated  that  every  dollar's 
worth  of  bone  gave  from  two  to  three  dollar's  worth  of 
wheat,  besides  improving  the  quality.  This  experiment, 
not  only  showed  that  I  could  use  bone  meal  profitably 
but  that  it  was  best  to  use  with  it  some  quicker-acting' 
manure  to  give  the  wheat  a  start  in  the  fall. 

Superphosphate  is  quicker  in  its  action,  and  when  the 
farmer  depends  on  commercial  manures  I  think  it  would 
be  wise  to  use  half  of  this  and  half  ground  bone,  or  if  he 
has  a  ten  acre  field  on  which  he  intends  to  use  Mtj  loads 


108  SUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

of  manure  and  a  half  ton  of  bone  meal,  it  would  be  wis^ 
to  scatter  the  manure  over  the   entire  field  and  pnt  onp 
hundred  pounds  of  bone   on    an    acre,  than  to  put  twC 
hundred  pounds  of  the  latter  on   five  acres  and  the  ma 
nure  on  the  other  five. 

In  the  fall  of  1879  I  sowed  four  acres  of  wheat  the  8th 
of  October  on  a  piece  of  land  where  we  had  cut  off  a  verr 
light  crop  of  corn.  We  had  plowed  the  corn  late  and 
then  gone  through  with  hoes,  so  that  the  land  was  per- 
fectly clean,  and  we  had  no  difficulty  in  making  an  ex- 
-cellent  seed-bed.  I  divided  the  piece  into  four  equal 
strips,  and  on  No.  1,  I  drilled  one  barrel  of  sifted  hen 
manure.  On  No.  2,  I  put  twelve  loads  of  good  rotten 
stable  manure.  On  No.  3, 1  drilled  two  hundred  pounds 
of  bone  meal,  and  on  No.  4, 1  drilled  two  hundred  pounds 
of  ammoniated  flour  of  bone,  which  is  quicker  in  its  ac- 
tion than  the  ground  bone.  I  left  strips  ten  or  twelve 
feet  wide  without  fertilizer  of  any  kind  between  these 
plots.  They  were  not  cut  separately,  but  I  exam- 
ined them  yery  carefull}^  comparing  one  with  another 
:and  with  the  unmanured  strips,  and  reached  these  con- 
<?lusions:  That  the  entire  crop  was  doubled  by  the  fer- 
tilizers. That  the  stable  manure  gave  a  little  the  heav- 
iest crop.  That  there  was  no  perceptible  difi'erence  in 
the  plots  where  the  hen  manure  and  bone  meal  were  used, 
A  comparison  with  the  unmanured  strips  left  no  doubt 
that  the  stable  manure  gave  more  tha^  an  extra  bushel 
of  wheat  for  every  load  used,  and  that  the  other  fertili- 
zers gave  three  to  five  bushels  of  increase  for  each  dol- 
lar's worth  used. 

I  can  give  no  better  advice  to  wheat  growers  than 
that  they  try  some  experiments  each  year.  I  would 
suggest  that  those  of  which  I  have  spoken  be  repeated. 
If  j^ou  have  not  a  fertilizer  drill  the  commercial  manure 


WHEAT.  109 

can  be  applied  by  hand.  Learn  what  bone  meal,  night- 
soil,  hen  manure,  etc.,  are  worth  to  you  on  your  own  soil. 
Always  leave  an  unmanured  plot  adjoining  with  which 
to  compare,  and  if  possible  cut  separately  and  weigh  the 
product  of  each.  Try  also,  extra  pulverization.  After 
you  have  your  field  in  what  you  call  good  condition,  put 
an  extra  dollar's  worth  of  work  on  one  acre  of  it,  and  see 
if  it  does  not  pay.  Try  burning  straw  on  a  plot  in  jour 
field,  and  see  what  efi'ect  it  will  have  on  the  soil.  Plow 
a  plot  four  inches  deep  and  another  eight,  and  give  them 
the  same  treatment  after,  and  note  the  diflTerence,  if  an}^ 
Plow  under  the  manure  on  one  plot,  and  top-dress  the 
adjoining  one.  Harrow  thoroughly  a  strip  of  wheat 
through  the  field  in  the  spring.  If  you  are  afraid  of  in- 
juring it  you  need  only  try  a  rod  wide,  but  go  over  it  till 
the  surface  is  thoroughly  mellowed,  doing  it,  of  course^ 
when  the  land  is  dry  enough  to  pulverize.  All  these  ex- 
periments are  interesting  and  valuable.  There  are  many 
questions  which  cannot  be  answered  for  you  by  another, 
but  a  little  care  in  experimenting  will  enable  you  to  an- 
swer them  for  3^ourself  for  all  time.* 


*Mr.  Brown  is  fond  of  experimenting,  and  these  suggestions 
'■ — like  all  he  makes,  are  good.  But  the  farmer  should  bear  in. 
mind  that  experiments  are  valuable  only  for  results,  and  unless 
a  careful  record  of  experiments  is  kept  they  will  be  valueless. 
I  would  recommend  the  progressive  farmer  to  keep  a  sepa- 
rate book  for  experiments  rather  than  to  enter  them  in  his 
diary  where  they  are  liable  to  be  lost  sight  of  among  other 
matter.  Do  not  crowd  the  book.  Head  a  page  with  the  name 
of  the  experiment,  and  then  fill  in  the  details  as  they  occur. 
Make  your  experiments  as  conclusive  as  possible.  One  exper- 
iment carried  through  to  a  conclusion,  is  worth  a  dozen  half 
completed.  Many  experimenters  spend  their  labor  for  naught, 
fromlack  of  care  in  particulars.  As  far  as  possible,  measure  and 
weigh  results,  and  record  the  measurements.  An  experiment  in 
which  you  guess  at  the  amount  of  land  and  at  the  quantity  of 
seed  and  at  the  results,  may  be  very  interesting  to  you,  but  no 
fact  of  value  was  ever  so  determined.  The  experimental  farm- 
er must  cultivate  business  care  and  accuracy.  e.  s.  t. 


CHAPTER  XI 


CORN. 

The  statistics  of  Ohio  from  1850  to  1880  inchisive, 
show  that  the  amount  of  corn  ground  in  the  State  in  1850 
was  one  and  a  half  million  acres. 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  acreage,  until 
several  times  in  the  last  few  years  it  has  exceeded  three 
million  acres. 

The  smallest  yield  during  this  time  was  1858 — fifty 
million  bushels.  In  1872,  for  the  first  time,  the  crop 
reached  one  hundred  million  bushels,  and  since  that 
time  it  has  but  three  times  fallen  below  that  amount, 
while  in  1878  it  reached  the  highest,  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  million  bushels. 

In  all  this  time  the  average  3neld  per  acre  for  the  State 
has  but  once  exceeded  40  bushels,  and  the  average  for 
the  whole  time  is  a  little  less  than  34  bushels  to  the  acre. 

As  Ohio  is  a  good  corn  State,  and  though  not  produc- 
ing quite  as  large  quantities  as  some  of  the  Western 
states,  yet  j^ields  as  much  to  the  acre,  we  can  well  take 
these  figures  as  the  ordinary  results  obtained  b}'  farmers 
throughout  the  Union. 

So  much  for  the  actual  yield,  now  let  us  take  a  look  at 
the  possible  yield. 

In  1877,  while  editing  the  agricultural  department  of 
the  Weekly  Enquirer,  I  offered  a  number  of  premiums 
i"©  r     the  largest  yields  of  corn  on  one  acre. 

^Nineteen    sent    in    reports,    the    land    having   been 


CORN.  Ill 

•measured  and  the  product  weighed  by  disinterested  par- 
ties. For  convenience  I  arrange  these  reports  in  tabu- 
lar form: 

BUSHELS  ON 
LOCATION. 

THE  ACRE. 

No.    1,  McLean  county,  Illinois, 118 

2,  Tipton  count}',  Indiana, 110 

3,  Pickaway  count}-,  Ohio, 110 

4,  Clinton  county,  "^        "      106 

5,  Montgomery  county,"      105 

6,  Sandusky  county,     "      104 

7,  Wayne  county,  Indiana, 104 

8,  Madison  county,     " 103 

9,  Delaware  count}^    " 102 

10,  McLean  county,  Illinois, 101 

11,  Belmont  county,  Ohio, 100 

12,  Blackford  county,  Indiana, 98 

13,  Scott  "    '  " 91 

14,  Shelby  "  "         91 

15,  Decatur  "  "         88 

16,  Shelby  "  "         88 

17,  Coles  county,  Illinois, 82 

18,  Stark  county,  Ohio, 78 

19,  Fairfield  count}-,  "      68 

The  average  yield   per   acre   of  these  nineteen  trials 

ivas  ninety-seven  and  four-nineteenths  bushels. 

WHERE  THE  PROFIT  COMES  IN. 

The  actual  cost  of  labor  in  growing  an  acre  of  corn 
cannot  well  be  reduced  below  $6.50.  Add  to  this  $5.00 
per  acre  for  interest  on  investment  and  taxes,  makes 
$11.50,  and  taking  the  Ohio  average  for  the  past  thirty 
years  of  34  bushels  per  acre,  would  make  the  corn  cost  31 
cents  a  bushel  to  those  who  grew  average  crops.  A  high 
cost,  considering  the  usual  market  price,  and  one  that 
leaves  but  little  profit  to  those  who  grow  but  average  crops. 

It  necessarily  follows  that  those  who  grow  less  than, 
average  crops  lose  money  at  the  business. 


112  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMING. 

The  parties  who  grew  the  above  premium  crops  re- 
ported the  costs  of  doing-  so,  which  averaged,  for  labor 
alone,  $8.90  per  acre.  Adding  as  before  $5.00  per  acre 
for  taxes  and  interest  on  investment  will  leave  the  cost 
of  their  crops  $13.90  per  acre,  which  divided  by  the 
average  3ield  gives  a  cost  of  about  14^  cents  a  bushel. 

The  conclusion  is  obvious: — The  profit  in  corn  grow- 
ing comes  in  the  big  crops,  and  that  if  by  increasing  the 
cost  for  labor  one-half,  we  can  double  the  yield,  we  have 
made  a  ver}^  profitable  investment. 

In  nearly  every  case  the  growers  of  these  premium  crops 
report  an  extra  amount  of  labor  in  getting  the  soil  ready. 
A  number  reported  $1  per  acre  expended  in  harrowing, 
rolling  or  dragging — an  amount  sufficient  to  bring  it  to 
a  very  fine  condition  of  tilth. 

Nearh'  all  of  these,  crops  were  grown  on  sod  land,  and 
"without  manure. 

SAVING  SEED  CORN. 

The  first  necessity  for  a  good  corn  crop  is  good  seed. 
The  loss  sustained  by  our  farmers  from  lack  in  this 
matter  is  enormous,  while  the  cost  of  selecting  and 
caring  for  corn  that  could  be  depended  on  for  certain 
germination  is  but  a  mere  trifle.  While  it  is  true  that 
perhaps  three  years  out  of  four  the  farmer  can  go 
to  his  crib  and  pick  out  corn  that  will  grow;  yet  it  is 
also  true  that  sometimes  it  will  not,  and  heav}^  loss  is 
the  consequence. 

Seed  corn  should  be  carefully  selected  in  early  au- 
tumn, and  placed  where  it  will  be  thoroughly  dried  be- 
fore hard  frost  Freezing  does  not  injure  well  matured 
and  well  dried  corn,  but  corn  that  is  immature, 
or  is  caught  b}'  frost  before  it  is  entirely  dry  is  liable  to 
liave  the  germ  destroyed. 

It  should  be  stored  in  a  dry,  airy  place.     Many  farm- 


COKX.  113 

ers  folio ^^'  the  plan  of  stripping  the  hu.sk  back  and  hang- 
ing the  eorn  up  in  an  airy  loft. 

Another  plan  highly  recommended  is  to  hang  the  corn 
in  the  smoke-house  and  allow  it  to  be  thoroughly 
smoked  with  the  meat.  Not  only  is  this  a  good  and 
sure  way  of  keeping  it,  but  it  is  said  the  grain  becomes 
80  thoroughly  impregnated  with  the  smoke  that  insects 
will  trouble  neither  the  grain  nor  the  young  plant. 

But  there  is  more  in  this  matter  of  selecting  seed  corn 
than  merely  to  get  that  which  will  grow.  I  like  Dr. 
SturdcA'anf  s  idea  of  ''pedigree  seed  corn''  and  have  no 
doubt  that  by  a  careful  and  persistent  selection  of  seed, 
the  yield  may  be  very  materially  increased.  All  careful 
experiments  in  this  matter  of  "breeding"  corn  show 
that  much  can  be  done.  I  established  a  new  and  valu- 
able variety  of  sweet  corn  from  a  "  sj)ort,"  but  it  took 
live  3X^ars  of  careful  selection  to  do  it. 

PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATION. 

The  improvements  in  methods  of  cultivation  in  corn 
have  kept  pace  with  other  matters  of  farm  management. 
I  remember,  when  a  boy,  that  the  land  was  marked  off 
and  the  crop  tended  with  a  single  shovel  plow.  It  was 
dropped  b}'  hand  and  covered  with  a  hoe,  and  no  pains 
were  taken  to  keep  the  field  clear  of  weeds  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season.  On  the  rich,  Whitewater  bot- 
toms, where  my  boyliood  was  spent,  the  field  would  be- 
come a  wilderness  of  Spanish  needles  and  cockleburs, 
and  the  first  work  I  can  remember  was  riding  the  horse 
that  drao-o-ed  a  brush  between  the  rows  in  order  to  rattle 
off  the  needles  and  burs  so  that  they  might  not  impede 
the  buskers,  and  the  weeds  were  often  so  tall,  that  sitting 
on  the  horse  I  would  be  covered  with  the  needles. 

The  farmer  in  this  latitude  should  if  possible  finish 
breaking  his  land  in  April,  which  will  give  him  abund- 

8 


114  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

ant  time  to  get  it  in  good  order  before  planting. 
Judgment  must  be  exercised  in  preparing  the  land.  If 
the  spring  is  drj^  there  is  no  danger  of  too  much  pulveriza- 
tion, but  in  a  wet  spring  it  will  be  better  to  leave  the 
general  surface  of  the  field  rather  rough,  and  draw  a  log 
along  the  furrow  to  pulverize  enough  soil  to  give  the 
corn  a  start.  The  remainder  of  the  field  can  then  be 
made  fine  and  level  before  the  corn  comes  up,  so  that  at 
the  first  working  j^ou  can  get  close  to  it  without  cover- 
ing it. 

Time  of  Planting. — i  like  reasonably  early  planting, 
and  am  certain  that  in  most  cases  it  gives  better  results, 
but  there  is  no  nse  in  planting  until  the  weather  and 
ground  gets  warm,  no  matter  what  the  time  of  year  may 
be.  Corn  will  not  grow  when  the  ground  is  still  cold 
from  the  winter  frosts,  and  seed  planted  before  there  is 
sufficient  warmth  to  cause  it  to  germinate  will  rot  in  the 
ground,  and  the  farmer  will  often  blame  the  seed  when 
lie  should  have  blamed  his  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  sim- 
l)le  principle  that  a  certain  amount  of  warmth  is  neces- 
sary to  cause  the  corn  to  germinate. 

Hill  ok  Drill. — This  has  been  a  question  on  which 
much  time  has  been  spent.  Both  methods  have  their 
ardent  advocates.  I  think  it  is  pretty  well  established 
that  where  the  land  is  clean,  and  the  farmer  has  the 
right  kind  of  implements  for  thorough  cultivation,  and 
knows  how  to  use  them,  more  can  be  grown  on  the  acre 
in  drills  than  in  hills,  but  as  it  is  much  more  difficult  to 
keep  drilled  corn  clean,  I  would  always  advise  that  where 
the  land  is  foul,  or  where  the  cultivation  has  to  be  main- 
ly left  to  hired  help,  the  hill  plan  should  be  adopted. 

Depth  of  Planting. — There  is  an  interesting  scien- 
tific fact  connected  Avith  this — the  deca^ang  grain  must 
furnish  all  the  food  to  the  j^oung  plant  until  the  leaves 


CORN.  115 

reach  tlie  surface  and  expand  in  the  light  and  air.  Con- 
sequently if  too  deeply  buried,  the  nutriment  in  the 
grain  is  exhausted  before  the  young  plant  is  able 
to  draw  food  from  the  soil,  and  it  becomes  enfeebled. 
Careful  experiment  shows  that  with  the  land  in  good  or- 
der one  and  one-half  inch  is  about  the  best  depth  for 
•covering  corn. 

Culture. — If  the  spring  is  backward,  the  nights  cold, 
iind  the  corn  inclined  to  be  unthrift}^,  take  the  bar  plow 
xand  run  it  as  close  to  the  row  as  joii  can,  using  a  fender 
or  rolling  cutter  on  your  plow,  and  turn  the  soil  ^rowi. 
the  row,  running  the  plow  about  five  inches  deep. 
If  your  corn  is  planted  as  straight  as  it  ought  to  be  this 
ridge  on  which  the  corn  is  left  standing  need  not  be 
more  than  five  inches  wide,  and  the  sun  soon  warms  this 
^nd  starts  the  corn  into  a  vigorous  growth.  I  have  had 
frequent  opportunity  to  compare  adjoining  rows,  one 
plowed  as  I  recommend,  and  the  other  worked  from  the 
start  with  a  cultivator,  and  the  difference  in  favor  of  the 
I)arshare  plow  was  very  perceptible.  In  warm,  pleasant 
springs  of  course  working  with  the  cultivator  from  the 
:start  does  equally  well. 

Within  a  few  3^ears  the  double  barshare  plow  has  been 
introduced  and  gives  good  satisfaction.  It  consists  of 
two  light  bar  plows  with  one  handle  each,  attached  to 
each  other  by  an  adjustable  wooden  bar  front  and  rear. 
For  small  corn  a  rolling  cutter  is  used  on  each  plow,  sa 
iis  to  entirely  protect  the  young  corn,  and  in  drilled  corn 
where  the  rows  are  straight  it  can  be  set  so  that  not  over 
three  inches  of  earth  is  left  unstirred;  and  with  well 
planted  hill  corn  the  work  can  be  done  almost  as 
effectually. 

It  is  often  a  question  how  much  and  how  long  com 
should  be  cultivated.      I   am    confident  that   increased 


116  SUCCESS    IN    FAlfMlXG. 

cultivation  gives  an  increased  .yield,  and  as  an  extra 
bushel  per  acre  will  about  pay  for  an  extra  plowing,  1 
think  it  will  pay  to  cultivate  oftener  and  longer  than  is 
usually  done.  An  opinion  has  been  prevalent  that  plow- 
ing corn  after  the  tassel  has  begun  to  show  is  injuri- 
ous. It  undoubtedly  is  if  the  corn  has  been  neglected 
till  the  ground  has  become  compact  and  set  with  weeds; 
l>ut  the  experience  of  our  best  farmers  has  shown  that  if 
the  cultivation  is  continuous  it  may  be  kept  up  till  late 
in  the  season,  not  onl}^  without  detriment,  but  with  great 
advantage  to  the  crop.  Mr.  L.  N.  Bonham,  a  corn- 
grower  of  great  experience  and  success,  says  he  plows 
liis  corn  till  the  ])ollen  chokes  him,  and  finds  it  pays. 

The  drought  of  the  past  summer  (1881)  has  shown 
the  importance  of  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  and 
constant  cultivation.  Wherever  corn  was  planted  in 
lumpy  soil,  or  allowed  to  become  weedv.  the  crop  is  well 
nigh  a  failure;  but  on  adjoining  fields,  with  no  better 
soil,  where  pulverization  and  tillage  was  thorough,  there 
has  been  a  profitable  crop. 

When  the  corn  land  is  to  be  seeded  in  wheat,  a  double 
advantage  is  gained  b}^  late  culture.  In  fact,  it  is  both 
difficult  and  expensive  to  properly  put  in  a  crop  of  wheat 
<m  corn  land  where  the  cultivation  has  been  discontinued 
early  in  the  season,  and  the  ground  become  filled  with 
■weeds.* 


*Mr.  Browai  has  omitted  mention  of  one  implement  which 
jnaiiy  of  our  best  farmers  prize  very  highly  in  the  cultivation  of 
ctorn,  namely,  the  harrow.  Some  of  our  best  corn  growers  be- 
^in  their  cultivation  by  harrowing  the  corn  just  before  it  comes 
up,  and  then  again  as  soon  as  it  is  fairly  above  ground  paying 
Tio  attention  to  the  rows.  Although  it  looks  as  though  the  har- 
row was  destroying  all  the  corn,  yet  in  a  few  days  every  plant 
will  show  itself  again  all  the  better  for  the  struggle.  It  is  get- 
ting to  be  generally  conceded  that  corn  cannot  be  cultivated 
too  early,  and  that  often  the  most  valuable  cultivation  it  re- 
ceives is  the  first.  r.  s.  t. 


CORN.  IIT 

INSECT    ENEMIES. 

Corn  is  troubled  with  these  less  than  most  other  crops 
but  occasionally  cut- worms  injure  it  badly,  The  smok- 
ing of  the  seed-corn  is  said  to  be  a  preventive  of  this. 
It  is  also  said  that  the  application  of  salt  and  land 
plaster  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  former 
to  two  of  the  latter,  and  a  pinch  applied  to  each  hill 
will  entirely  stop  their  ravages.  A  barrel  of  the  mixture 
is  sufficient  for  eight  acres. 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN. 

Clover  is  the  cheapest  and  best  fertilizer  for  this  crop, 
and  the  farmer  who  uses  all  his  manure  on  the  wheat 
•crop  and  sows  clover  with  the  wheat,  will  grow  heavier 
-crops  of  both  wheat  and  corn  than  if  the  manure  was 
used  on  the  corn  land.  A  clover  sod  gives  a  clean  and 
mellow  seed-bed  for  corn,  and  it  is  easier  and  pleasanter 
to  draw  manure  over  the  solid  land  in  July  and  August, 
than  over  the  soft  miry  earth  in  March  or  April. 

VALUE  OF  CORN  FODDER. 

In  the  nineteen  corn  reports  referred  to  in  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter,  but  one  of  them  allowed  anything' 
for  the  fodder  and  then  onl}'  one  dollar  an  acre,  and  as 
managed  by  a  large  proport-ion  of  western  farmers  they 
do  not  realize  this  amount  from  it,  and  often  injure  the 
land  by  tramping  when  wet  more  than  all  they  get  is 
i\'orth.  The  farmers  of  the  New  England  states  put  a 
ver}'  high  value  on  corn  fodder,  often  more  than  would 
buy  a  heavy  crop  of  corn  at  the  West.  I  know  that  com 
fodder  in  New  England  is  worth  more  than  in  the  West, 
for  twu  reasons :  Their  small  varieties  of  corn  make 
better  fodder  than  our  coarser  growing  kinds  and  it  is 
much  pleasanter  to  handle,  and  ha}^  brings  a  much  high- 
«er  price  with  them  than  with  us. 

I  know  that  corn  fodder  is  so  valuable  with  us  that  ife 


118  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

is  wasteful  to  leave  it  in  the  field,  and  that  a  handsome 
profit  above  the  cost  of  saving  can  be  made  on  it. 

What  is  an  average  acre  of  corn  fodder  worth,  and 
what  does  it  cost?  I  answer  to  the  first  question,  it  is 
worth  as  much  as  a  ton  of  good  hay,  and  this  estimate 
is  based  on  twenty  years'  experience  in  the  use  of  fod- 
der, and  I  have  during  that  time  fed  hay  enough  to  en- 
able me  to  compare  the  two.  I  have  kept  from  eight  to 
twenty  head  of  horses  and  cattle  each  winter,  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  time  I  have  not  cut  a  pound  of  ha^^  a  year 
but  depended  on  corn  fodder  for  work  teams,  milk  cows,, 
and  stock  cattle.  I  have  been  confirmed  in  this  estimate 
of  the  value  of  corn  fodder  by  many  farmers  of  large  ex- 
perience in  its  use.  As  to  its  being  palatable  to  stock 
and  their  thriving  well  on  it,  I  find  that  it  takes  the  very 
best  hay  to  equal  it.  The  great  objection  to  it  on  the 
part  of  many  farmers  is,  the  amount  of  waste  and  the 
butts  in  the  manure  pile.  The  waste  of  corn  fodder  i& 
less  than  many  suppose.  Some  years  since  I  conducted 
a  series  of  careful  experiments  to  ascertain  what  the  ac- 
tual waste  was.  I  was  at  that  time  milking  seven  cows- 
and  selling  butter  to  a  hotel.  For  several  days  I  weighed 
the  fodder  for  the  cows  and  after  each  feed  weighed  the 
waste,  and  I  found  that  they  ate  just  two-thirds  of  the 
fodder.  I  also  found  that  a  ton  of  the  fodder  would  feed 
a  cow  three  months.  We  were  feeding  in  addition  ten 
pounds  a  day  of  bran  and  corn  meal  mixed  equal  parts,. 
and  on  this  diet  they  kept  up  a  full  flow  of  milk,  and  the 
same  ration  fed  to  dry  cows  soon  made  them  ready  for 
beef.  I  know  that  the  part  of  the  fodder  the  cattle  eat 
is  worth  as  much  as  the  same  weight  of  the  best  hay,  or 
in  other  words,  three  tons  of  fodder  is  worth  as  much 
as  two  tons  of  hay.  Now  let  us  estimate  the  cost.  I 
liave  hired  all  my  corn  cut  up  for  years,  and  it  has  cost 


CORN.  119 

me  about  $1.25  per  acre.  The  price  for  some  3'ears  was 
five  cents  for  shocks  containing  100  hills,  but  of  late 
years  I  get  141  hills — or  shocks  12  hills  square — cut  for 
this,  and  m}'  hands  make  over  $2  a  da^^  at  this  price; 
some  of  my  neighbors  paid  but  four  cents  for  shocks  of 
this  size.  As  we  usually  plant,  this  would  give  about 
twent}^  shocks  to  the  acre.  It  costs  but  little  more  to 
get  the  corn  husked  from  the  shock  than  from  the  stand- 
ing corn.  I  have  never  paid  above  eight  cents  a  shock 
and  this  includes  binding  the  fodder  in  bundles.  We 
use  rye  straw  for  this  purpose,  and  unless  we  are  ready 
to  draw  the  fodder  to  the  barn  or  stack  the  same  day, 
the  husker  sets  the  bundles  up  in  shock  and  ties  a  band 
round  the  top  to  hold  them  together.  After  deducting 
what  it  would  cost  to  husk  the  corn  if  it  was  not  cut 
up,  less  than  $3  will  cover  the  entire  expense  of  cut- 
ting up  and  securing  in  barn  or  stack  an  acre  of  corn 
fodder  if  let  out  by  the  job,  I  have  spoken  of  stacking 
fodder ;  there  is  no  product  of  the  farm  more  easil}^ 
stacked.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  make  the  stack  nar- 
row so  as  to  keep  the  middle  three  or  four  feet  higher 
than  the  edges,  which  gives  a  good  slope  to  the  bundles. 
It  will  shed  the  rain  and  keep  perfectly.  I  prefer  to 
build  rather  small  stacks  containing  from  sixty  to  one 
hundred  shocks  each,  or  if  a  larger  one  is  wanted  make 
it  long  and  narrow  so  that  it  can  be  put  up  and  taken 
down  in  sections.  Whatever  else  may  be  neglected, 
shocked  corn  should  be  husked  and  the  fodder  hauled 
before  winter  sets  in.  When  the  ground  freezes  the  fod- 
der freezes  down  to  the  ground,  and  when  a  thaw  comes 
the  fields  are  so  muddy  that  it  is  exceedingly  disagree- 
able to  handle  the  fodder,  and  if  the  field  has  been  sown 
to  wheat  this  crop  will  be  seriously  damaged.  If  the 
corn  is  left  out  till  spring  the  injury  to  grain  and  fodder 


120  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

is  often  more  than  the  cost  of  husking.  The  wise  farmer 
will  secure  help  enough  to  finish  up  this  work  during 
the  pleasant  weather. 

There  are  two  ways  of  managing-  the  waste:  One  is 
to  clean  out  the  mangers  every  day  and  scatter  the  con- 
tents over  the  barn-yard.  The  cattle  soon  tramp  them 
into  tlie  common  mass  of  straw  and  manure,  and  they 
give  no  trouble.  In  four  weeks  after  forking  up  the  ma- 
nure in  the  spring  in  a  small  barn-yard  in  which  I  had 
thrown  the  butts  from  twenty  acres  of  heavy  corn,  it  was 
fine  enough  to  use  on  the  garden.  The  other  and  the 
best  way  is  to  cut  up  the  fodder  and  use  the  waste  for 
bedding.  This  may  be  done  by  catting  it  fine  in  a  cut- 
ter of  some  kind,  or  if  but  little  stock  is  kept  it  can  be 
cut  into  six-inch  lengths  on  a  block  with  a  cleaver,  and 
even  cut  this  length  the  waste  will  make  good  bedding.* 

I  have  found  corn  fodder  the  best  bedding  material 
for  hogs  confined  in  pens  during  winter.  It  keeps  cleaner 
and  lasts  much  lono^er  than  straw,  and  the  hosjs  need 
some  bulky  food  and  they  will  eat  the  blades  and  part 
of  the  husks 

There  is  one  more  point  connected  with  corn,  and  that 
is,  that  when  fed  entire  grain,  husk  and  blade,  it  fur- 
nishes a  perfect  ration,  just  the  right  proportion  of  flesh 
and  fat  formers,  and  this  fact  stated  by  scientific  inves- 
tigators is  confirmed  from  the  fact  that  shock  corn  fed 
to  cattle  keeps  them  in  fine  condition,  and  gives  a  large 
gain  both  in  flesh  and  fat.  I  shall  speak  of  fodder  corn 
in  the  chapter  on  "Special  Crops." 


*Soine  persons  claim  that  feeding  corn  fodder  cut  up  makes 
the  mouths  of  the  cattle  sore.  r.  s.  t. 


CHAPTEE   XII. 


GRASSES. 


VALUE  OP  THE  CKOP. 

The  importance  of  this  crop  is  often  underestimaterT. 
Ohio  statistics  for  1879  show  the  wheat  crop  of  the  State 
as  worth  fifty-one  million  dollars,  and  the  ha}^  croj)  at 
only  nineteen  million;  but  hay  does  not  represent  the 
entire  value  of  the  grass  crop,  as  a  large  proportion  of 
the  grass  is  pastured  and  not  cut. 

The  grass  crop,  also,  when  properh'  used,  tends  rather 
to  renovate  than  to  wear  out  land,  and  the  wise  farmer^ 
in  regions  where  grass  is  a  successful  crop,  can  greatly 
increase  his  profits,  diminish  his  labor  and  expenses^ 
and  improve  the  fertility  of  his  farm,  by  keeping  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  his  land  in  grass. 

It  is  true  that  in  some  portions  of  North-eastern  Ohio, 
where  the  land  has  been  kept  in  grass  from  the  earliest 
settlement  of  the  country,  and  the  products  carried  off 
in  milk  and  cheese  and  meat,  the  land  has  suftered  dete- 
rioration as  surely  as,  though  more  slowly  than,  under 
continuous  grain  cropping;  but  where  grass  is  made  a 
part  of  a  rotation,  it  always  has  a  beneficial  influence  on 
the  land,  and  where  the  dairy  business  is  not  exten- 
sively followed,  and  the  pastures  stocked  with  grown 
cattle,  or  especially,  sheep,  the  land  ma^^  be  kept  in  grass 
indefinitely  without  deterioration. 

There  are  mam^  broken  farms  in  the  hilly  sections  of 
-the  country,  which  are  cultivated  in  corn  and  wheat  year 


IfH  -SUCCESS    IS    FAKMIXO. 

after  year,  not  only  at  a  loss  to  the  farmer,  but  the  total 
and  irremediable  destruction  <A'  the  farm  by  washings 
which,  if  Heeded  down  in  fx^rinanent  pasture  and  stocked 
with  sheep,  would  maintain  their  fertility,  or  even  show 
a  gain,  and  brin^  their  owner  a  steady  income.  The 
lyeni  illustration  of  this  I  have  ever  seen  is  on  the  hiirh 
blutf»  of  the  Miami  river,  near  its  mouth.  On  one  farm 
von  will  nee  the  hill»  clothed  in  blue-gras»  from  base 
to  Hummit,  taking  on  a  dense  gre^'u  with  the  first  open 
weather  c>f  spring,  and  often  coven-d  with  flrnks,  making 
a  gcxxl  living  on  thewi  by  the  first  of  April,  and  again  in 
?fovem>>er  and  December.  On  an  a/ljoining  farm,  whifli 
has  be^'U  c«jltiv{it«'<l  in  grain,  the  hills  are  seamed  and 
gullic^l  until  almost  valueless. 

In  many  sex-tions  of  the  country  where  clover  df>es  not 
•ucc*M'<l  well,  grass  entirely  takes  its  plaee  in  a  rotation. 
One  great  advantaj/e  conne^-Ujd  with  grass  as  a  stanrlanl 
crop,  is  the  light  <'xpense  an<l  labor.  When  pastured,. 
the  exjXfTjse  of  harvesting  is  naught,  and  even  when  cut 
itjr  hay,  the  exi>en»e  is  light  cx>mpare<l  with  most  other 
crojw. 

V  A  mKrn  va  to  (motrnz. 

In  this  matter  the  faniwr  must  be  governed  by  hiK 
Uxrality,  nature  of  soil  an<l  pur[>ose  he  has  in  view.  There 
are  certain  varieties  of  gran**  which  fiouri^h  on  certain 
geological  formations  anfl  will  not  grow  on  otherfi.  Home 
are  excellent  for  jjasture  and  r>f  but  little  value  for  hay; 
an'J  othi'rs  again,  make  the  >x*f»t  hay,  but  do  not  make 
goo<l  jx'rmanent  pasture.  Some  varieties  will  grr>w  on 
very  wet  land  that  coubl  not  otherwis*^  be  utilised  with- 
out underdraining.  Others  would  wint^'rkill  cm  nueh 
land. 

For  permanent  pasture  we  have  thriM^  excellent  p'SLHftent 
all  of   which  fiourish    on  a    large  area  of  our  Wcst^frn 


UUA8SK»,  1  -'5 

Statos.     Tlu'so  arc  Muo  ^rasH,  orchard  jfra^ss  and  rv\\  top. 

Hm^k  (Iuass  belongs  OHpoeiall}'  to  a  liiuostoiio  country, 
<lm^^  best  oti  dry,  rolling  landn,  and  yet  llouriHlu^  on 
many  sintions  of  tlu>  Wo.^torn  prairioH  wlion  once  it  ^otx 
;i  hold.  It  forms  a  close,  tongh  Hod,  that  savci*  hillsides 
troni  wasldtig,  aiid  will  cndnro  during  the  ojHm  wmitlicr 
ofwinttM-or  rarly  spring  an  ainonnt  of  tiantpitij^:  that 
would  !>('  ruinous  to  sonic  other  varieties.  It  in  »w(vt 
ni.l  tintiition»,  making  the  best  of  beef  and  milk,  and  isi 
relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  Tt  starts  into  vigorous 
growth  with  the  hrst  open  went  hi  r  ol'spring,  anilcotitiu 
nm  gi*(Hm  and  fn^»h  late  in  '  t'  i  ill.  and  in  m\m^  WHytiotm 
rurnishcs  good  picking  all  through  the  winter,  when  t!ic 
ground  is  not  covered  with  snow. 

It  does  not  .tiIhi.'  hvni  nm\  drought  w.II,  nm\  hi  tt 
sununer  like  thai  <>\  l>^>sl,  tails  eiitirrlv.  hui  it  conicw 
forth  with  WDntirifiil  \i!M)i-  and  iVrshm-ss  with  llienrst 
fall  rains 

It  is  slow  to  laki-  hoKl  oi  lUv  grv)und,  and  ?*houUi  never 
be  »owu  except  for  perntanent  i)ai4ture. 

Kor  the  same  reason,  in  starting  a  t)lue  grass  pasture, 
the  seed  shordd  alwa\  s  be  sown  with  some  other  grafts. 
1  prefer  to  »ow  with  nmoihy.aH  this  will  not  shade  it  too 
much,  and  about  the  tinu?  tln^  tijnothy  runs  otn,  tlwtduc 
grass  will  be  ready  to  occupy  the  lantl. 

He  careful  to  ktjow  I  hat  you  hav(>  good,  fresh  Hwni,  aj* 
there  is  probat)ly  no  grass  seed  sold  that  is  nn>re  oft<Mi 
worthh>ss.  Sow  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in  th(^  winter, 
using  one  buslul  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  use  as  inucit 
timothy  seed  as  if  you  had  sown  no  t>lue  grass,  for  it 
will  nmkc  but  little  show  the  Orst  year  or  two. 

Never  sow  1)1  uc  grass  with  red  clover,  as  it   will  nni 
succeed. 

It  is  said  that  if  the  n(m\  h  »eattered  ov.i  th.-  fianl 


124  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

surface  of  an  old  pasture,  it  will  take  root  and  do  as  well 
as  on  mellow  ground.  Wherever  it  does  once  get  a  foot- 
hold, it  will  ultimately  crowd  out  everything  else. 

I  have  tried  the  plan  of  getting  a  set  of  hlue  grass  hy 
"grafting,"  which  proved  successful.  I  cut  sod  one  and 
a  half  or  two  inches  thick,  and  cut  this  into  pieces  two 
inches  square,  and  on  a  field  that  had  just  been  sown  to 
oats  dropped  these  pieces,  about  two  feet  and  a  half 
apart  each  way,  and  stepped  on  them  to  press  them  into 
the  mellow  ground.  Every  piece  grew  and  the  grass  is 
spreading  from  them  rapidly.  On  a  large  scale,  the 
pieces  might  be  scattered  from  a  wagon  with  a  shovel  or 
manure  fork,  and  pressed  into  the  ground  with  a  roller.* 

Blue  grass  flourishes  well  in  the  shade,  and  enables  us 
to  make  profitable  wood  pastures.  Near  my  farm  are 
several  plantations  of  locust  timber,  where  the  trees 
stand  so  close  it  would  be  difficult  to  drive  between  them 
with,  a  wagon,  and  yet  the  land  is  heavily  set  in  blue 
grass,  and  carries  nearly  as  many  cattle  to  the  acre  as 
land  that  is  fully  exposed  to  the  sun.  By  a  little  care, 
wood  lots  may  be  set  in  this  grass  and  pay  a  fair  inter- 
•est  on  capital  invested. 

Red  Top  does  well  on  almost  all  soils,  but  will  thrive 
-on  soil  so  wet  as  to  be  unfit  for  other  purposes.  Like 
blue  grass,  it  bears  tramping  well,  and  on  rich  soil  will 
produce  a  heavy  crop  of  very  fair  hay,  which  though  not 
quite  equal  to  timothy  hay,  can  be  produced  on  land  not 
fitted  for  that  crop.  For  pasture,  it  is  fully  as  accepta- 
ble to  stock  as  the  average  of  grasses. 

Red  top  should  be  sown  on  a  mellow  and  level  surface. 


*Where  tor  any  reason  there  is  difficulty  in  geting  a  start  of 
blue  grass  from  the  seed,  this  plan  may  prove  valuable  ;  but  in 
ordinary  cases  I  should  imagine  that  the  labor  would  cost  more 
than  the  seed.  R.  s.  t. 


GKASSES.  12^ 

as  it  is  a  delicate  seed,  and  will  need  no  covering,  as  the 
rains  will  wash  it  in  sufficienth".  It  niaj^  be  sown  at  the 
time  wheat  is  put  in,  and  if  sown  alone,  two  bnshels  of 
seed  is  none  too  much;  but  as,  like  blue  grass,  it  is  per- 
manent and  will  spread,  it  is  better  to  seed  with  one 
bushel  (fourteen  pounds)  of  red  top  and  six  quarts  of 
timothy. 

Orchard  Grass. — Though  coarse,  tlds  grass  makes 
good  ha}'  and  better  pasture.  Cattle  are  very  fond  of  it, 
and  chemical  anal3^sis  shows  it  to  be  richer  in  flesh-pro- 
ducing elements  than  timothy,  and  nearlj^  as  rich  lu.  fat- 
producers. 

It  is  a  good  grass  to  sow  in  connection  with  red  clover, 
as  it  ripens  earl}-,  j^revents  the  clover  from  lodging,  and 
makes  it  easier  to  cure.  It  thrives  best  on  a  ricli,  wari» 
soil,  and  seems  specially  adapted  to  creek  bottouis. 

Orchard  grass  may  be  sown  in  either  fall  or  spring; 
should  be  sown  on  a  well  prepared  surface  and  covered 
lightly.  The  fertilizer  attachment  to  the  wheat  drill 
will  sow  it  evenly  and  well,  if  not  in  use  for  fertilizer>s. 
To  prevent  the  forming  of  stools,  heavy  seeding  is  re- 
quired, and  it  will  pay  to  apply  two  and  a  half  bushels 
to  the  acre. 

In  seeding  down  land  to  permanent  pasture,  the  best 
results  are  obtained  from  a  mixture  of  blue  grass,  red 
top  and  orchard  grass.  Stock  thus  gets  a  varietj  of 
food;  and  on  broken  lands,  which  are  the  kind  that 
should  be  chosen  for  this  purpose,  there  is  nsnallv  a 
large  variet}'  of  soil,  and  if  one  kind  fails  on  any  partic- 
ular portion  of  the  field,  one  of  the  other  varieties  will 
succeed  and  prevent  a  barren  spot. 

There  is  much  pasture  land  which  yields  no  profit  to 
the  owner,  and  which  loses,  rather  than  gains,  fertilitj, 
on  account  of  too  early    pasturing  in   spring  and  over 


126  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

stocking.  A  plant  continually  kept  cropped  close  to  the 
ground,  can  develop  but  little  root,  and  the  roots  are  the 
source  not  only  of  a  heavy  growth,  but  also  of  fertilit3\ 
Better  sow  a  field  of  rye  for  early  feed  than  turn  stock 
on  pastures  before  the  grass  has  fairly  started. 

Timothy. — For  the  regular  hay  crop,  no  grass  has  ever 
been  found  superior  to  this.  It  usually  brings  a  higher 
price  in  market  than  any  other.  It  is  not  suitable  for 
permanent  pasture,  as  it  usually  runs  out  in  two  or  three 
years;  but  it  makes  an  excellent  part  in  a  rotation,  and 
leaves  the  land  in  good  order  for  corn  or  wheat. 

Timothy  is  usually  sown  with  wheat  or  oats,  and  most 
•drllLs  are  now  provided  with  grass  seeders.  I  would  sow 
not  less  than  a  peck  to  the  acre.  This  is  rather  more 
than  is  commonly  used,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  a  heavier 
«tand  of  grass  can  be  obtained,  and  as  the  statistics 
show  that  the  average  hay  crop  of  Ohio  is  but  one  and 
■one-sixth  tons,  it  is  evident  that  something  needs  to  be 
•done  in  the  matter. 

Bone  dust  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  grass,  and  it 
will  be  well  to  use  about  two  hundred  pounds  to  the 
acre  in  sowing  wheat  with  timothy.  The  occasional  ap- 
plication of  the  same  amount  as  a  top  dressing  to  mead- 
ows, will  doubtless  be  found  beneficial  in  most  localities, 
and  it  will  pay  each  farmer  to  determine  by  experiment 
what  its  efi'ect  will  be  on  his  farm. 

MAKING  HAY. 

The  question  of  the  time  to  cut  hay  has  been  debated  in 
granges  and  farmers'  clubs  till  it  has  grown  monotonous. 
A  few  simple  principles,  however,  will  settle  the  gen- 
eralities of  the  question,  and  after  that  each  farmer  can 
determine  the  details  for  himself. 

Immature  plants  do  not  contain  as  much  nutritive  mat- 
ter as  those  that  have  nearlj^  arrived  at  maturity,  nor  are 


GRASSES.  12T 

the}^  eas}^  to  cure.  When  the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen  in 
the  plant,  a  large  portion  of  the  nutritive  matter  in  the 
plant  goes  into  the  seed,  and  the  plant  itself  remains^ 
little  more  than  a  mass  of  woody  fiber. 

The  time  to  cut  hay,  then,  would  seem  to  be  just  after 
the  blossom  has  fallen  and  before  the  seed  has  ripened. 
Some  persons  cut  while  in  bloom.  This  makes  very 
dusty  hay. 

Some  claim  that  a  timothy  meadow  will  not  run  out 
so  soon  if  not  cut  until  the  seed  ripens.  This  is  true, 
but  only  so  because  in  harvesting  a  large  amount  of 
the  seed  shatters  out,  and  the  ground  is  practicall}^  re- 
seeded.  This  is  seeding  the  ground,  however,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  value  of  the  crop  of  ha\\ 

ANNUAL   GRASSES. 

Some  of  these  are  of  considerable  importance  to  the 
farmer,  especially  wlien,  from  any  reason,  the  meadows 
are  short,  as  they  can  be  sown  late  and  usually  yield 
heavy  crops  of  hay — not  quite  equal  in  value  to  timothy, 
but  very  useful  in  its  place. 

Hunoarian  o^rass  and  German  millet  are  the  best 
known.  They  should  not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is 
quite  warm,  usually  the  first  of  June,  though  in  some 
sections  they  can  be  grown  successfully  when  sown  in„ 
July.  Good  crops  have  been  grown  on  land  from  which, 
a  crop  of  wheat  had  just  been  cut. 

Work  the  ground  thoroughl}^  and  seed  heavily — three 
or  four  pecks  to  the  acre — as  with  thinner  seeding  the 
plant  will  be  coarse.  Cover  with  a  plank  drag,  which, 
will  press  the  seed  into  the  earth  and  insure  quick 
germination,  and  also  leave  a  smooth  surface  for  the 
mower  to  run  on. 


CHAPTEE    XIII 


CLOVER. 


ITS  A'ALUE  ON  THE  FARM. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  a  crop  of  any  kind,  many 
items  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  These  in- 
clude not  only  the  money  value  of  the  crop  after  it  is 
produced,  but  the  cost  of  its  production  and  the  effect 
npon  the  soil.  To  the  cost  of  seed  and  labor  used  in 
growing  a  crop  of  wheat  or  corn  must  be  added  a  cer- 
tain amount  to  cover  fertilizing  elements  that  have  been 
taken  from  the  soil,  and  which  must  be  replaced  if  the 
land  is  to  continue  productive. 

I  estimate  the  cost  of  growing  and  harvesting  an  acre 
of  corn  or  wheat  at  $8.  Of  course  this  will  vary  with 
varying  circumstances,  T)ut  in  most  cases  this  will  prob- 
ably not  be  too  high  an  estimate. 

There  is  much  more  difficulty  in  determining  the  value 
of  the  fertility  taken  from  the  soil  l)y  a  crop  of  grain, 
but  I  should  say  that  $2  per  acre  would  be  about  a  fair 
charge.  By  this  I  mean  that  it  would  cost  that  much  to 
restore  it,  either  by  barn-yard  manure  or  commercial 
fertilizers.  This  would  allow  $12  worth  of  manure  spread 
nver  an  acre  of  land  once  in  six  j^ears.  This  would  cer- 
tainly not  be  any  more  than  sufficient  to  maintain  its 
fertility  under  continued  cropping  with  grain,  and  my 
estimate  of  $2  per  acre  for  plant  food  removed  by  a  crop 
of  grain  is  therefore  certainl}^  not  too  high. 

This  will  make  the  cost  of  orowing  an  acre  of  corn  or 


CLOVER.  \21 

v.iieat  $10.  Allowing  tliat  twenty  bushels  an  acre,  at  $1 
11  bushel  would  be  a  fair  average  yield  and  price  for 
wheat,  and  fifty  bushels  an  acre  and  40  cents  a  fair  av- 
erage yield  and  price  for  corn,  the  money  value  of  the 
crop  on  an  acre  would  be,  in  either  case,  $20,  allowing  a 
profit  of  $10  per  acre  on  a  crop  of  grain. 

Now,  we  will  compare  this  with  the  profit  on  an  acre 
of  clover.  The  cost  of  seed  and  growing  will  not  exceed 
$1  per  acre.  A  l)ushel  of  seed  is  sufficient  for  eight  or 
ten  acres  of  land,  and  10  cents  per  acre  will  cover  tho 
cost  of  sowing.  Preparation  of  seed-bed  costs  nothing, 
for  ordinarily  it  is  sown  on  wheat  or  oats  and  covered  by 
the  action  of  frost  and  rains.  Even  if  we  harrow  the 
wheat  field  to  give  the  clover  a  better  chance,  one-half 
the  cost  should  be  charged  to  the  wheat,  which  will  be 
greatly  benefitted  by  the  treatment. 

Next,  as  to  the  removal  of  elements  of  fertility  from 
the  soil :  Instead  of — as  in  the  case  of  corn  or  wheat — 
having  to  charge  the  clover  with  $2  an  acre  on  this  score, 
we  can  actually  give  it  a  credit  of  $8  ])er  acre  for  ele- 
ments of  fertility  added  to  the  soil.  How  this  is  done 
will  be  discussed  further  on;  the  fact  is  sutficient  for  my 
present  purpose.  To  prove  that  this  is  a  reasonable  esti- 
mate, it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  exi)erience  has  abun- 
dantl}^  demonstrated  that  a  crop  of  clo\^er  will  restore  to 
the  soil  as  much  fertility  as  is  taken  away  by  four  years 
cropping  with  grain.  Now,  as  we  demonstrated  that  it 
would  take  at  least  barn-yard  manure  to  the  A^alue  of  $8 
to  do  this,  then  this  is  the  lowest  estimate  we  can  place 
on  the  manurial  value  of  this  crop. 

Next,  as  to  the  market  value  of  a  crop  of  clover;  for  it 
must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  above  estimate  of  its  ma- 
nurial value  is  made  with  the  supposition  that  the  crop 
is  pastured  or  utilized  as  a  meadow.  Mr.  Colburn,  in 
9 


130  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

his  book  on  Swine  Husbandry,  estimates  that  six  tons 
of  green  clover  can  be  grown  on  an  acre,  and  fifteen 
pounds  will  make  a  pound  of  pork.  Valuing  the  pork  at 
4  cents  a  pound,  would  give  the  value  of  an  acre  of  clover 
when  pastured  at  $32.  This  is  undoubtedly^  an  extrav- 
agant estimate. 

L.  N.  Bonham,  who  has  made  this  matter  a  careful 
study  for  years,  estimates  the  value  of  an  acre  of  clover, 
when  pastured  to  cattle  or  hogs,  at  $9,  and  this  is  prob- 
ably a  fair  estimate;  and  if,  instead  of  pasturing,  it  is 
cut  twice — once  for  hay  and  once  for  seed — the  net  value 
of  an  acre,  after  deducting  the  cost  of  harvesting,  will 
certainly  not  be  less  than  this. 

We  have  now  the  data  from  which  to  reckon  the  value 
to  the  farmer  of  an  acre  of  clover : 

Net  market  value  of  crop $  9  00 

Value  of  fertilizing  elements  returned  to  soil  ....     8  00 

Total, $17  00 

Less  cost  of  seed  and  cultivation 1  00 

Net  profit  per  acre $16  00 

For  facilit}^  in  comparison,  I  now  repeat  the  estimate 
on  an  acre  of  grain : 

Net  market  value  of  crop $20  00 

Less  cost  of  cultivation $8  00 

"    fertility  removed  from  soil 2  00 —  10  00 

Net  profit   $10  00 

Which  shows  $6  more  profit  on  an  acre  of  clover  than  on 
an  acre  of  grain.  To  this  might  be  added  that  the  clover 
stubble  is  loose  and  mellow  and  free  from  weeds. 

While  of  course  clover  cannot  take  the  place  of  crops 
of  grain,  yet  this  estimate  shows  very  clearl}'  its  value 
to  the  farmer,  and  the  important  place  it  occupies  among 
the  crops  of  the  farm. 


CLOVER.  131 

HOW  CLOVER  ADDS  TO  THE  FERTILITY  Ol*'  THE  SOIL= 

^lany  persons  are  greatly  puzzled  to  understand  how- 
it  can  be  that  a  crop  of  clover  can  be  grown,  and  yield  a 
<;'rop  of  hay  and  crop  of  seed  to  be  carried  away,  and  still 
add  fertility  to  the  soil.  A  little  thought  will,  I  think, 
make  it  clear.  I  have  already,  in  other  chapters,  alluded 
to  the  influence  of  shade  on  the  soil,  in  causing  the  de- 
posit of  nitrogen;  and  perhaps  there  is  no  crop  grown 
on  the  farm  which  produces  so  dense  a  shade  as  clover. 
Its  abundant  foliage  takes  in  carbonic  acid  from  the  at- 
mosphere, and  the  large  roots  penetrate  deeply  into  the 
Tsubsoil,  bringing  up  and  making  available  the  valuable 
mineral  elements  needed  for  our  grain  crops. 

Clover  is  rich  in  valuable  ash.  A  careful  anal3^sis  of 
this  ash  gives  the  following  result: 

Phosphoric  acid 7.5 

Sulphuric  acid 4.3 

Carbonic  acid 18 

Silica 3 

Lime 30 

3Iagnesia , 8.5 

Potash , .  „ 20 

Soda,  chlorine  and  iron 8.7 

Total, 100.0 

The  reader  will  understand  that  the  above  is  an  aver- 
age of  several  different  anal3^ses,  as  different  samples 
will  vary  according  to  the  soil  on  which  the}^  are  grown. 
The  roots  are  still  richer  in  ash  than  the  tops,  and 
consequently,  in  the  mineral  elements  needed,  and  when 
we  find  out  the  proportion  of  root  to  top,  we  shall  begin, 
to  understand  wh}-  the  clover  crop  enriches  the  land, 
even  when  cut  for  ha}^  and  for  seed.  Carefully  conducted 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  weight  of  roots  is  much 
greater  than  of  tops.     Dr  Voelcker,  of  the  Roj^al  Society 


132  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

of  England,  selected  an  average  square  yard  in  a  field  of 
clover  that  had  been  cut  twice — once  for  ha}^  and  once 
for  seed — and  found  that  in  the  first  six  inches  of  the 
soil  the  clover  roots,  after  being  washed  and  dried, 
weighed  one  pound,  ten  and  one-half  ounces.  This 
would  give,  in  round  numbers,  three  and  one-half  tons 
of  clover  roots  in  the  first  six  inches  of  the  soil,  and,  as 
fully  one-third  of  the  roots  lie  l^elow  this,  we  can  esti- 
mate over  five  tons  of  clover  roots  in  the  soil  of  a  single 
jicre.  These  experiments  also  showed  that  tlie  weight  of 
the  clover  roots  doul)led  between  the  time  the  crop  was 
cut  for  hay  and  when  it  was  cut  for  seed. 

It  has  puzzled  many  farmers  to  understand  how  clover, 
■which  contains  so  large  a  per  cent  of  the  same  valuable 
elements  which  wheat  does,  could  enrich  the  soil  and 
benefit  the  wheat  crop  as  they  find  by  practical  experi- 
jnent  that  it  does.  The  fact  of  the  large  quantity'  of 
roots  left  in  the  soil,  and  that  the  clover  gets  its  nutriment 
so  largel}^  from  the  atmosphere  and  the  subsoil  makes 
clear  what  seemed  mysterious. 

There  may  be  enough  fertilizing  elements  for  hun- 
dreds of  crops,  lying  in  the  soil,  either  out  of  reach  of 
the  roots  of  plants,  or  in  a  form  not  available;  and  clover 
i-eaches  down  and  brings  them  up  and  renders  them 
available;  just  as  there  might  be  scattered  over  the 
ground  bones  containing  enough  rich  fertilizing  mate- 
rial for  several  heavy  crops  of  wheat,  but  which  the 
plants  could  not  use.  If  these  bones  are  ground  to  a 
powder  and  incorporated  with  the  soil,  they  would  then 
be  available  to  the  plants. 

So  there  are  in  the  subsoil  and  air  almost  inexhausti- 
l3le  supplies  of  plant  food,  but  which,  like  the  unground 
l)ones,  are  not  available  to  the  ordinary  plant.  The  clover 
seizes  these  elements  and  makes  them  available. 


CLOVER.  133 

In  the  beginning  of  this  article  I  made  an  estimate  of 
the  fertilizing  yalue  of  an  acre  of  clover  from  the  prac- 
tical standpoint  Now  let  us  see  what  the  value  would  b« 
from  a  chemical  standpoint.  The  value  of  potash,  am- 
monia and  phosphoric  acid  as  contained  in  commercial 
fertilizers,  is  usually  estimated  to  be: 

Ammonia   171  cents  sP  ft>. 

Potash    6^     " 

Phosphoric  acid 6       "         " 

From  a  careful  comparison  of  a  number  of  tables,  I 
estimate  that  the  roots  of  an  acre  of  good  clover  will 
<.'i>ntain : 

Ammonia 145  lbs.  @  17^  cents,  $25  37 

Potash, 140  lbs.  @:    6^  cents,      8  40 

Phosphoric  acid, 42  ibs.  @    6    cents,      2  52 

$36  21> 
This  shows  that  m^-  estimate  from  a  practical  stand- 
point was  not  extravagant.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind^ 
howcA-^er,  that  a  part  of  this  value  retained  in  the  roots, 
must  be  allowed  to  replace  what  was  carried  off  in  the  tops, 
and  that  of  course  a  portion  was  gathered  from  the  sur- 
face soil.  The  real  fertilizing  profit  is  in  that  portion 
that  is  drawn  from  the  air  and  subsoil. 

There  is  one  other  benefit  of  clover,  dififlcult,  perhaps, 
to  estimate,  but  which  farmers  are  not  slow  to  appreciate, 
iind  that  is  its  mechanical  effect ;  and  this  does  more 
than  make  the  land  w^ork  easily,  for  it  also  enables 
the  roots  of  other  plants  to  traverse  the  soil  and  find 
food,  which  they  otherwise  would  be  unable  to  reach. 
Clover  is  also  a  cleansing  crop,  by  which  I  mean  that  it 
so  fully  occupies  the  land  that  it  does  not  allow  any 
other  plants  to  grow,  and  the  seeds  of  many  troublesome 
plants  will  sprout  and  then  be  smothered  by  the  dens(? 
growth  of  clover,  and  perish. 


134  SUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

GETTING  A  STAND. 

If  all  said  above  is  true  of  clover — and  those  who  have- 
liad  the  most  experience  with  it,  will  testify  to  these 
facts — farmers  cannot  well  sow  too  much  of  it,  and  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  moment  to  know  how  to  insure  a 
stand.  I  believe  that  moderately  early  sowing  will  gen- 
•erally  be  found  the  safest;  but  localities  and  seasons 
vaiy  so  that  no  date  can  be  given.  It  should  be  sown 
early  enough  so  as  to  l)e  covered  by  the  action  of  frost, 
and  3-et  not  so  early  as  to  be  in  danger  of  heavy  frost 
after  it  comes  up,  as  it  is  sometimes  killed.  If  sown  late, 
after  the  probability  of  frost  is  over,  it  is  best  to  harrow 
the  wheat,  as  this  will  give  a  better  seed-bed  for  the 
clover,  and  at  the  same  time  be  of  benefit  to  the  wheat. 
Many  farmers  are  afraid  of  injuring  the  wheat  in  this 
way,  but  I  have  used  a  heav}',  sharp  harrow  without 
injury.  Perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  use  the  Thomas, 
or  some  other  slope-tooth  harrow,  and  go  over  it  both 
ways;  but  I  should  use  a  common  tooth  harrow  if  I  had 
no  other.  It  is  of  such  vital  importance  to  the  farmer 
to  get  a  stand  of  clover,  in  order  that  his  rotation  may 
not  be  broken  up,  that  it  will  be  profitable  to  take  much 
pains  in  sowing  clover,  and  I  think  it  will  pay  to  sow 
early  and  cross  sow  a  little  later,  using,  of  course,  but 
half  the  seed  at  each  seeding.  Ordinaril}-  both  sowings 
<;ome  up  and  do  well,  but  if  the  first  sowing  should  be 
killed  by  a  late  freeze,  the  second  would  be  likely  to  do 
well,  and  should  the  weather  come  on  dry  and  hot,  the 
early  seeding  would  be  out  of  danger. 

When  the  farmer  saves  his  own  seed  and  sows  in  the 
chaff,  as  is  often  done,  I  would  always  recommend  early 
sowing,  as  the  seed  will  be  slower  in  germinating,  and 
the  hull  will  also  be  a  protection  to  the  young  plant. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre  must  vary  some- 


CLOVER.  135 

what  with  the  soil  and  condition  of  seed-bed ;  but  under 
favorable  circumstances  a  bushel  will  seed  ten  acres 
well,  and  this  is  the  amount  of  seed  most  commonly 
sown.  I  prefer  g-enerally  to  seed  heavier,  and  I  notice 
that  those  who  follow  thrashing  clover  seed  report  the 
heaviest  yield  from  lieav}^  seeding,  and  some  of  them 
recommend  ten  pounds  to  the  acre. 

SAVING  CLOVER  SEED. 

I  have  no  hesitation  in  advising  farmers  who  can  to 
save  their  own  seed.  It  is  not  only  economical,  but  also 
safe;  for  mau}^  farmers,  by  buying  seed,  have  introduced 
troublesome  weeds,  to  the  great  detriment  of  their  farms. 
Much  seed  that  is  old  and  worthless,  or  that  is  adulter- 
ated, is  put  upon  the  market,  and  doubtless  man}^  farm- 
ers who  fail  to  get  a  stand,  attribute  it  to  the  season,  when 
it  is  reall}^  caused  by  poor  seed. 

Clover  seed  is  usually  a  profitable  crop  to  grow  for 
sale,  as  good  clover  ought  to  average  two  bushels  of  seed 
to  the  acre,  and  double  this  has  often  been  grown;  but 
even  when  not  grown  for  sale,  the  farmer  can  grow 
enough  for  his  own  use,  and  sow  it  in  the  chaff,  and 
I  think  that  when  sown  early  in  this  way  it  is  surer  than 
the  clean  seed.  When  a  crop  of  seed  is  wanted,  the 
first  crop  should  be  cut  early  in  June ;  the  second  will 
then  be  ready  the  last  of  August  or  first  of  September, 
which  will  be  Ixuown  by  three-fourths  of  the  heads  hav- 
ing turned  brown.  It  should  be  left  by  the  reaper  in 
bunches  large  enough  for  a  good  sized  fork  full.  Do 
not  let  it  stand  till  too  ripe,  or  try  to  handle  it  much,  or 
vou  will  lose  much  of  the  seed.  It  is  best  to  thrash 
from  the  field  in  a  dry  time,  as  it  is  difficult  to  stack  so 
as  to  keep  out  the  water,  and  it  is  too  dusty  to  be  pleas- 
ant in  the  barn.  The  waste  will  be  valuable  in  the 
compost    heap,    or   will   make  an    excellent   mulch  for 


136  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

the  wheat  or  an3'thing  to  which  joii  wish  to  apply  it- 

CLOVEK  HAY, 

Is  excellent  feed,  especially  for  milk  cows,  but  may  be 
greatl}'  injured,  either  by  too  much  drying  or  too  much 
wet.  If  dried  too  much,  the  leaves  crumble,  and  the 
best  part  of  it  is  wasted;  or  if  left  out  in  the  rain,  or 
put  in  the  mow  so  green  as  to  mould,  it  is  unwholesome 
and  unpalatable.  After  clover  is  fairly  wilted,  it  should 
be  cured  in  small  cocks.  It  may  be  put  in  the  barn 
quite  green,  if  you  have  dry,  old  hay,  or  straw,  or  corn 
fodder  to  put  between  the  layers,  as  they  will  absorb  the 
moisture.  If  clover  is  cut  green,  it  cannot  be  safely  put 
in  the  barn  with  one  day's  curing  without  an  absorbent. 

VARIETIES  OF  CLOVER. 

For  general  purposes,  the  common  red  is  the  best  va- 
riety; but  my  experience  with  the  Mammoth  has  been 
favorable,  and  I  recc)mmend  farmers  to  experiment  with 
it.  It  makes  a  larger  growth  of  top  and  of  course  of 
root,  and  when  the  crop  is  grown  with  reference  to  its 
value  for  manure,  it  will  certainly  furnish  a  greater  bulk 
than  the  common  red.  When  the  season  is  dry,  it  makes 
excellent  hay,  but  in  a  wet  season  is  apt  to  grow  coarse 
and  woody,  and  so  rank  as  to  lodge  and  be  badly  injured. 
I  have  cut  three  tons  of  it  to  the  acre,  cured,  and  the 
hay  was  equal  to  any  clover.  Where  a  little  clover  is 
wanted  with  timothy,  it  is  best  to  sow  this  varietj^  as  it 
ripens  about  with  that  grass.  One  and  a  half  or  two 
pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  enough  when  sown  with 
timothy,  as,  if  vou  get  on  much  more  than  this,  it  will 
smother  it. 

Alsike  clover  is  a  medium  variety,  finer  than  the  com- 
mon red,  with  heads  half  way  in  size  between  that  and 
white  clover.  It  makes  line  hay,  and  will  cut  a  fair 
swath,  and  furnishes,  like  the  white,  good  bee  pasture. 


CLOVER.  137 

The  seed  sells  at  about  25  cents  a  pound,  but  it  is  so 
:fine  that  much  less  seed  than  of  red  clover  will  sow  an 
acre.  White  clover  is  very  seldom  sown,  but  1  think 
farmers  would  find  it  profitable  to  sow  on  poor  spots 
where  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  stand  of  grasses,  or  on 
washy  places  on  hillsides,  as  it  is  tenacious  and  seldom 
killed  out  when  it  gets  a  foothold. 

.  The  reader  will  notice  that  I  have  not  recommended 
plowing  under  the  crop  for  enriching  the  land.  It  may 
be  profitable  under  some  circumstances,  but  ordinarily 
it  will  be  worth  more  for  other  purposes,  and  as  has  been 
^ilready  shown,  we  get  the  mechanical  eff'ect  and  a  full 
development  of  the  roots,  which  are  the  most  valuable 
part  when  we  utilize  the  crop  both  for  hay  and  seed.  I 
would  not,  under  any  circumstances,  plow  under  a  heavy 
growth  of  clover  late  in  the  season  on  land  that  w^as  i4> 
be  sown  in  wheat.  I  have  known  in  several  instances  a 
total  failure  of  crop  from  so  doing.  A  moderate  growth, 
especially  if  plowed  under  early,  is  not  objectionable; 
but  if  a  great  mass  is  turned  under  late  in  the  season,  it 
is  impossible  to  get  a  proper  seed-bed.  If  I  wanted  to 
utilize  the  entire  crop  for  the  benefit  of  the  land,  I  should 
rather  let  it  stand  all  the  season,  without  either  cutting 
or  pasturing,  and  if  it  was  dry  enough,  so  that  it  could 
be  burned  off"  by  the  last  of  August,  I  should  burn  it  if 
I  intended  to  sow  in  wheat,  and  then  mellow  three  or 
four  inches  of  the  surface  and  sow  the  Avheat.  The 
largest  crop  of  wheat  I  have  ever  heard  of  being  grown  in 
Ohio,  and  which  averaged  over  sixt3^  bushels  to  the 
iicre,  was  where  a  field  of  Mammoth  clover  was  burned. 
I  think  I  should  burn  this  crop  also  in  the  spring,  if  I 
were  intending  to  follow  with  corn.  Another  way  highly 
xecommended,  when  the  entire  crop  is  to  be  utilized  for 
fertilizing  purposes,  is  to  cut  the  first  crop  and  leave  it 


138  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

as  it  falls,  allowing  the  second  crop  to  grow  up  through  it. 

When  pastured,  clover  should  not  be  turned  on  too 
f^arly  or  too  heaA^ih'  stocked,  as  if  too  closely  cropped  we 
lose  the  benefit  of  shade  and  development  of  root,  and 
consequently  its  value  as  a  fertilizer  is  greatl}'  reduced. 

One  other  point  connected  with  the  pasturing  of  clover 
is,  that  it  sometimes  causes  bloat  or  hoven  in  cattle,  so 
as  to  produce  fatal  results.  Fortunately,  I  have  had  no 
experience  with  it  on  my  farm,  but  I  remember  when  a 
boy,  my  father  lost  a  valuable  cow,  and  I  have  known 
cases  where  a  farmer  has  lost  several  head  in  a  season. 
It  is  not  prudent  to  turn  hungry  cattle  into  a  clover  field 
the  first  time  in  the  spring,  when  the  dew  is  on  in  the 
morning.  I  have  talked  with  many  farmers  on  this 
subject,  and  find  that  I  can  never  hear  of  a  case  of 
,bloat  when  the  pasture  contains  a  strip  of  blue  grass  or 
timothy,  and  as  my  pastures  have  alwa3^s  contained  other 
grasses  as  well  as  clover,  this  may  be  the  reason  I  have^ 
escaped  it.  Another  preventive,  which  many  farmers 
consider  infallible,  is  to  have  a  straw  stack  in  the  fields 
to  which  the  cows  can  have  access. 


CHAPTEK   XIY 


POTATOES. 


While  potatoes  should  find  a  place  on  eveiy  farm,  there 
iire  serious  drawbacks  to  growing  them  largely  as  a  field 
crop.  The}^  cannot,  like  grain,  be  kept  over  a  year  or 
more;  but  must  be  sold,  whether  the  price  gives  a  profit 
or  not.  It  is  a  risky  crop,  also,  more  easily  affected  by 
drought,  and  often  entirelj^  ruined  by  continued  wet 
weather;  and  as  potatoes  must  be  wintered  in  the  cellar 
or  in  pits,  they  are  far  more  expensive  to  handle  than 
grain. 

Notwithstanding  these  disadvantages,  the  crop  is  a 
profitable  one  to  the  farmer  who  understands  its  proper 
management,  and  who  follows  growing  it  persistently, 
not  allowing  himself  to  be  frightened  into  abandoning  it 
by  a  failure  or  unprofitable  season.  It  is  certainly  a  safe 
estimate  that  two  bushels  of  potatoes  can  be  grown  on 
the  same  land  which  would  produce  one  of  corn,  and  at  an 
average  price  of  40  cents  per  bushel,  the  farmer  would 
find  them  profitable. 

There  seems  to  be  a  tendenc}^  to  degeneration  in  the 
potato,  which  results,  where  a  variety  is  planted  for 
many  years  on  the  same  soil,  in  "  running  out."  But  by 
^election  and  h3^bridizing,  new  and  more  valuable  va 
rieties  are  as  constantly  being  produced,  which  replace 
those  which  have  to  be  abandoned. 

It  would  be  useless  for  me  to  give  a  list  of  varieties, 
for  not  only  is  their  name  legion,  but  each  neighborhood 


140  SUCCESS    TN    FAKMIN(r. 

has  its  favorites,  and  the  variety  tliat  does  the  best  in 
one  locality  may  not  succeed  in  anotlier.  The  farmer 
who  would  succeed  with  potatoes,  sliould  test  some  of 
the  newer  and  more  promisino-  varieties  each  3'ear,  and 
while  he  is  thus  ''proving  ail  things"  should  also  "hold 
fast  that  which  is  good."  A  single  pound  of  seed  will, 
if  properly  managed,  produce  a  busliel  or  more,  and  en- 
iible  him  to  test  the  ([uality  and  grow  enough  the  second 
year  to  plant  a  field. 

The  first  rec^uisite  for  growing  a  profitalde  potato  crop 
is  a  rich  soil,  and  as  the  principal  mineral  element  wanted 
is  potash,  and  clover  not  only  furnishes  it,  but  also 
gives  just  the  mechanical  condition  of  soil  wanted,  a 
<;lover  sod  makes  an  excellent  potato  patch.  The  earliei- 
the  variety  of  potato  the  richer  the  land  should  be,  for 
the  less  time  a  plant  has  in  which  to  gather  its  food, 
the  more  concentrated  and  readily  jivailable  that  food 
must  be.  A  variety  of  potato,  which,  like  the  Peach- 
blow,  does  not  mature  till  late  in  the  fall,  will  produce 
paying  crops  on  poor  land,  on  which  an  early  variety 
would  scarcely  produce  a  crop  worth  digging. 

I  believe  in  deep  planting  of  the  potato,  and  always 
use,  for  laying  off  potato  land,  a  shovel  plow  with  a  long 
point,  which  not  only  makes  a  deep  furrow,  but  leaves 
loose  earth  in  the  bottom  of  it.  I  then  step  on  the  seed, 
pressing  it  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  cover  with 
the  plow,  and  before  the  potatoes  come  up,  cross  harrow. 
This  kills  the  weeds  which  are  starting,  and  loosens  the 
soil,  and  if  it  does  not  make  it  sufficiently  level  and 
smooth,  we  put  on  the  roller,  for  as  soon  as  the  potatoes 
can  be  seen  in  the  row,  we  want  to  work  as  close  to  them 
us  possil)le. 

For  early  ]»otatoes,  I  prefer  to  plow  in  the  fall  and  ma- 
nure at  the  surface,  and  in  the  spring  work  this  manure 


POTATOES.  141 

into  the  soil  liefore  planting.*  The  best  remedy  I  have 
ever  found  for  the  Colorado  Beetle  is  a  thrifty  plant;  and 
I  have  never  had  the  crop  materially  injured  if  the 
ground  was  rich,  the  cultivation  thorouofh,  and  the  sea- 
son  o^ood.  If  the  weather  is  drv,  so  as  to  check  the 
growth,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  Paris  green,  and  I 
very  much  j^refer  to  use  in  water.  A  single  application 
made  in  this  way,  using  less  than  two  pounds  to  the 
acre,  during  the  dry  summer  of  1881,  saved  my  crop,  as 
was  proven  by  the  fact  that  the  adjoining  rows,  left 
without  this  application,  were  entirely  ruined. 

I  believe  that  as  a  rule,  farmers  use  too  much  seed. 
One  piece  with  two  good  eyes  in  a  liill  is  suthcient.  I  be- 
lieve the  best  way  to  save  seed  is  to  select  each  year  verr 
carefully,  a  bushel  of  ''  stock  seed."  They  should  be 
fair,  large  tubers,  as  near  perfect  as  can  be  found;  from 
these  select  tubers  grow  your  seed  for  the  coming  3^ear, 
and  from  their  product  again  select  your  ''  stock  seed.'^ 

I  have  conducted  some  xavy  careful  experiments, 
which  prove  that  a  fine  crop  of  large  potatoes  can  be 
grown  from  ver}'  small  seed,  and  while  1  recommend  the 
plan  given  above  for  selecting  seed,  I  do  not  hesitate 
when  potatoes  are  scarce  and  liigh,  to  plant  ver}-  small 
seed. 

M}^  first  experiment  was  in  1857.  I  had  grown  a  yery 
fine  crop  the  previous  year,  and  did  not  sell  till  springs 
and  when  marketing  in  April,  I  selected  one  bushel  of 
the  most  perfect  potatoes  I  could  pick  out  of  one  hun- 
dred bushels.  I  rejected  any  potato  that  weighed  less 
than  a  pound,  or  that  had  a  blemish  or  rough  place  on 


*0m'  most  successful  potato-growers  are  very  particnlar 
about  having  the  soil  as  rich  as  possible,  and  consider  it  a  crop 
that  not  only  can  scarcely  be  manured  too  much,  but  that  ie^ 
crops  pay  better  for  being  mtmured.  k.  s.  i» 


142  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

it  I  then  selected  a  half  peck  of  the  meanest  little  po- 
tatoes I  could  find.  Not  one  of  them  would  have  weighed 
an  ounce,  and  where  I  could  I  broke  off  the  protuberances 
from  the  rough,  knobby  potatoes.  I  planted  five  rows 
side  by  side  from  each  kind  of  seed,  gave  them  the  same; 
cultivation,  and  when  I  dug  them  put  them  in  two  piles 
side  by  side,  and  called  four  men  who  were  building  a 
barn  near,  to  examine  them,  telling  them  of  the  selection 
of  the  seed,  but  not  which  pile  grew  from  the  large  or 
:sraalL  The  three  journeymen  said  they  could  see  no 
difference  in  quality  or  quantity,  but  the  boss  carpenter 
made  a  careful  comparison  and  decided  that  the  north 
pile  was  of  the  best  quality-,  which  I  then  told  him  grew 
from  the  small  seed. 

In  the  spring  of  1860  potatoes  were  high  and  I  found 
that  I  had  not  seed  to  finish  what  I  wished  to  plant,  and 
I  used  as  seed  some  veiy  small  potatoes,  which  I  had 
put  in  the  cellar  to  cook  for  the  pigs.  I  planted  about 
lialf  an  acre.from  this  seed.  The  crop  grown  from  them 
was  an  excellent  one,  both  in  yield  and  quality.  Somt^ 
j^ears  later  I  planted  a  row  of  Early  Rose  potatoes  from 
seed  so  small  that  it  took  ten  to  weigh  an  ounce,  and  the 
adjoining  row  from  good  sized  seed,  and  found  no  differ- 
ence in  the  3'ield. 

I  consider  it  important  that  the  seed  should  be  fresii 
and  plump.  I  do  not  like  a  sliriveled  potato  for  seed ; 
it  does  not  start  the  plant  with  vigor;  and  I  think  it 
much  better  to  winter  seed  potatoes  in  pits  than  in 
the  cellar.  If  the  soil  is  dry,  or  slopes  so  as  to  giv(i 
good  surface  drainage,  there  is  no  trouble  in  wintering 
in  pits,  and  there  is  much  less  labor  about  it  than  in 
carrying  them  into  and  out  of  the  cellar.  Much  time 
can  be  saved  in  handling  potatoes  by  assorting  as  they 
are  dug.     Let  the  men  who   follow  the  diggers  pick  up 


POTATOES. 


143 


only  the  mercluintable  potatoes  and  pour  them  into  sacks, 
only  one  bushel  to  the  sack.  When  3^ou  are  ready  to 
haul  them  to  the  pit,  two  men  can  load  or  unload  a 
wagon  in  loss  than  t.ii  minutes,  and  the  potatoes  will 
not  be  so  l'-:.'ly  to  be  bruised.  I  am  particular  about 
haying  but  one  bushel  in  a  sack,  for  then  they  will  not 
need  to  be  tied,  and  it  v.ill  not  take  as  long  to  load  and 
unload  as  it  would  to  tie  and  untie  the  sacks,  and  thej' 
can  be  handled  with  much  greater  ease.  * 

In  pitting  potatoes,  I  prefer  to  put  no  straw  next  to 
them.  If  I  have  a  supply  of  good  coarse  manure,  I  cover 
simply  with  eighteen  inches  of  mellow  earth,  and  as  soon 
as  the  ground  freezes  so  as  to  bear  a  team,  put  a  foot  of 
manure  over  them.  If  I  do  not  use  manure,  I  cover  with 
six  or  eight  inche  of  earth  and  then  a  coat  of  straw  and 
eighteen  inches  of  earth  over  that.  I  consider  this  safer 
than  to  have  the  straw  next  the  potatoes,  for  if  the  straw- 
gets  damp,  as  it  is  likely  to,  and  the  frost  reaches  it, 
it  is  pretty  sure  to  go  through  it,  but  is  not  likely  to  pene- 
trate the  second  covering  of  earth. 

As  there  is  both  labor  and  risk  in  wintering  potatoes, 
■and  it  is  impossible  to  know  what  the  price  will  be  in 
spring,  I  think  it  safest  to  sell  in  the  fall — at  least  half 
the  crop,  if  a  pacing  price  can  be  had.  I  once  wintered 
four  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes  that  I  was  offered  80 
cents  a  bushels  for,  and  in  the  spring  I  could  not  get  an 
offer,  and  was  obliged  to  feed  them  to  stock.  This  ex- 
perience made  me  cautious  and  I  have  never  held  over  all 
of  a  crop  since.  * 


*A  plan  of  growing  potatoes  much  in  use  in  some  section- 
is  planting  them  under  straw.  The  potatoes  are  planted  shals 
low  and  a  foot  of  straw  spread  over  the  field.  Another  plan  is 
to  simply  lay  the  potatoes  on  top  of  the  freshly  plowed  land 
and  cover  with  straw  as  before,  though  I  have  less  seldom  seen 
this  plan  successful.     The  advantages  are  that  the  straw  keeps 


144  SUCCKSS    IN    FAKMIXG. 

SWEET  POTATOES. 

I  liave  foTind  sweet  potatoes  a  uuifoniily  profitable 
i'l-o}). 

Although  the  usual  instructions  are  to  plant  on  sandy 
land,  I  have  had  the  best  success  on  a  rather  stitf  clay, 
and  can  alwa3^s  confidently^  expect  both  a  good  3^ield 
and  quality,  even  on  thin  land,  if  I  have  fine  j'otted  ma- 
nure to  give  it  a  moderate  dressing.  The  most  success- 
tul  sweet  potato-grower  of  my  acquaintance  does  not 
break  his  land,  but  ridges  it.  leaving  the  land  hard  un- 
derneath. I  should  do  this  if  it  was  not  troublesome  to 
get  the  land  fine  and  mellow  when  in  this  shape;  but  I 
jjrefer  to  plow  shallow — not  over  four  inches — and  stir 
and  roll  until  the  soil  is  perfectly  pulverized  and  tlie  ma- 
nure thoroughly  mixed.  I  then  nuike  small  ridges  ]»y 
throwing  two  furrows  together  with  a  one-horse  plow, 
and  leave  a  little  strip  of  earth  between  the  ridges,  as  we 
tshall  want  it  to  dress  the  plants  with  when  we  come  to 
lioe  them. 

Most  sweet  potato-growers  plant  in  a  row  on  thi.s 
ridge,  and  it  saves  time,  for  you  can  get  the  soil  in  such 
excellent  order  that  you  will  not  need  to  touch  it  with  a 
hoe.  I  am  convinced,  however,  from  repeated  compari- 
son of  hills  and  drills,  that  it  will  pay  to  make  small 
hills.  A  hand  will  make  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred 
in  a  day,  and  I  find  the  potatoes  are  larger  and  the  yield 
greater  in  hills  than  in  drills.  I  make  the  hills  about 
three  feet  apart  each  way,  a  little  more  between  the  rows, 


down  the  weeds,  saves  cultivation,  and  undoubtedly  enriches 
the  land.  In  Southern  Illinois  where  I  have  tried  the  x^lan 
year  after  year  the  straw  would  always  be  so  fully  rotted  at  the 
end  of  the  season,  that  it  gaxe  no  tr(nil)le.  In  the  drier  atmos- 
phere of  Ohio  I  find  this  is  not  always  the  case.  The  plan  usu- 
ally gives  a  rather  smaller  crop  than  when  cultivated,  but 
more  goo<l  potatoes.  k.  s.  t. 


SWEET  POTATOES.  145 

and  a  little  less  in  the  row,  and  this  gives  nearly  five 
thousand  hills  to  the  acre,  and  a  pound  of  merchantable 
potatoes  to  the  hill  makes  over  eighty  bushels  to  the  acre. 

We  have  several  objects  in  view  in  this  shallow  plow- 
ing and  small  hills :  First,  they  warm  through  better, 
and  the  sweet  potato  being  a  tropical  plant,  cannot  flour- 
ish in  a  cold  soil.  The  weather  is  rarely  too  hot  or  too 
dry  for  this  crop.  Second,  we  want  the  potatoes  to  grow 
thick  instead  of  long,  and  when  they  reach  the  hard  soil 
underneath,  it  checks  the  lateral  growth  and  gives  a  bet- 
ter shaped  tuber ;  and,  third,  in  growing  thick  instead  of 
long,  they  crack  and  loosen  the  hill,  and  this  keeps  it  in 
good  condition  after  the  vines  haA^e  spread  so  that  cul- 
tivation is  impossible. 

I  think  it  pays  to  keep  the  vines  on  half  the  ground, 
keeping  every  other  space  clear.  This  gives  the  hills 
more  sun,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  dig  the  potatoes,  and 
enables  you  to  bury  all  the  vines  as  you  dig.  We  use 
the  potato  hook  in  digging,  and  one  stroke  to  a  hill  will 
generally  do  the  work.  In  digging,  take  two  rows  at  a 
time,  walk  on  the  vines  and  draw  the  hills  towards  you 
from  each  side,  and  by  a  little  trouble  you  can  bury 
every  leaf. 

KEEPING  SWEET  POTATOES. 

I  have  found  that  if  sweet  potatoes  are  mature  and 
thoroughly"  dried,  there  is  no  trouble  in  keeping  them 
in  a  dry  cellar  nearly  all  winter,  but  they  should  be 
handled  as  carefully  as  eggs,  for  if  bruised  they  are 
sure  to  rot.  The  potatoes  which  I  intend  to  keep 
for  winter  use  I  spread  out  singly  in  the  hottest  sun- 
shine for  two  or  three  days,  and  then  pack  in  barrels, 
with  dry  sawdust  between  the  layers.  Immature  sweet 
potatoes  are  not  wholesome,  but  when  thoroughly  ripened 
they  are  an  excellent  article  of  diet. 

-     10 


146  .SUCCESS  IX  yAK3iiN(;. 

SPROUTING  SWEET   POTATO  I  :s. 

If  you  intend  to  grow  sweet  potatoes  iii  any  quantity, 
you  should  always  grow  your  own  plants.  With  even 
fair  success,  it  will  be  much  cheaper  than  buying  them, 
but  even  if  it  cost  more  I  would  recommend  it,  as  better 
plants  can  be  grown,  and  then  j^ou  can  take  advantage 
of  morning  and  evening  or  a  damp  day  to  transplant, 
and  the  plants  will  always  be  fresh.  Most  of  those  who 
grow  plants  for  sale  crowd  them  in  the  bed  until  they 
are  spindled  and  weak;  but  in  growing  for  yourself  j^ou 
can  regard  quality  rather  than  quantity,  and  give  them 
plenty  of  room. 

It  took  me  ten  years  to  learn  to  sprout  sweet  potatoes, 
during  which  time  I  lost  a  part  or  all  my  seed  nearly  every 
year.  For  man}"  years  I  have  been  uniformly  success- 
ful, and  I  believe  I  can  give  instructions  which  will  ena- 
ble the  novice  to  be  successful  from  the  start.  I  think 
nine  times  out  of  ten  when  sweet  potatoes  rot  in  the  bed, 
it  is  from  an  excess  of  heat,  and  if  you  have  as  much 
bottom  heat  as  you  need,  and  allow  the  sun  to  heat  up 
the  bed  from  above,  it  is  almost  certain  to  result  in 
scalded  potatoes.  I  have  never  lost  the  potatoes  or  failed 
to  get  a  good  sprout  since  I  adopted  the  plan  of  covering 
the  bed  with  straw  or  corn  fodder.  This  enables  me  to 
control  the  temperature,  and  also  keeps  the  bed  moist, 
so  that  it  will  need  no  water  until  the  plants  begin  to 
come  up,  when  we  remove  the  covering  and  do  not  re- 
])lace  it;  l)ut  if  there  is  danger  of  frost,  cover  the  bed 
with  boards.  If  at  any  time  you  find  the  bed  lacks  heat, 
take  olf  the  straw  at  nine  or  ten  o'clock  on  a  bright, 
sunny  day,  and  sometime  ]>etween  twelve  and  two,  when 
you  find  it  warmed  up,  replace  it.  I  make  a  sweet  po- 
tato bed  flat,  and  put  hot  manure  one  foot  deep,  and  two 
feet  wider  and  longer  than  my  frame  which  I  put  OQ 


SWEET  POTATOES.  147 

the  manure.  If  you  put  the  manure  in  the  frame,  the 
«outer  edges  of  the  bed  are  likely  to  be  cold .  The  ma- 
nure must  be  thoroughly  shaken  up,  so  as  to  have  na 
lumi^s,  and  must  be  well  packed,  but  instead  of  tramp- 
ing it,  take  two  short  pieces  of  board,  and  moving  one 
<Mliead  of  the  other  alternately,  pass  from  end  to  end* 
si)ringing  up  and  down  on  the  boards.  This  will  pack 
it  evenly.  For  a  frame  use  inch  boards  one  foot  Tvide. 
A  convenient  size  for  the  bed  is  six  by  sixteen  feet, 
Avhich  will  hold,  as  ordinarily  put  in,  one  barrel  of  pota- 
toes. There  should  be  four  inches  of  earth  between  the 
potatoes  and  the  manure,  and  three  inches  above  themy 
and  the  seed  should  never  be  put  in  the  bed  until  it  is 
al>out  blood  heat.  Water  copiously  when  the  plants  are 
voming  up,  but  it  will  harden  them  to  withhold  water 
when  they  are  large  enough  to  set  out;  but  the  bed  should 
l)e  well  soaked  a  few  hours  before  the  plants  are  drawn. 
If  you  do  not  break  the  roots  of  the  potatoes  in  taking 
up  the  plants,  you  will  have  a  second  drawing  in  about- 
two  weeks. 

The  usual  time  for  putting  the  seed  in  the  hot  bed  is 
the  middle  of  April ;  but  if  early  potatoes  are  wanted,  a 
few  should  be  started  in  March  and  transplanted  into 
small  pots,  and  these  plunged  in  a  fresh  bed,  b}^  which 
means  some  weeks  can  be  gained.  Sweet  potatoes  bear 
transplanting  w^ell,  and  if  the  land  is  in  good  condition 
iind  plants  properly  set,  nearly  all  will  grow.  In  setting 
out  the  plants,  puddling  is  much  better  than  watering, 
besides  being  less  trouble.  In  making  the  puddle  use 
fresh  cow  dung  and  enough  clayey  soil  so  that  ii  will 
adhere  to  the  roots.  Stir  and  thicken  until  it  is  of  a 
consistency  to  coat  the  roots  thickh'  wdien  dipped  into 
it.  Put  one  plant  in  a  hill;  set  it  deep  and  crowd  the 
earth  so  tio^ht  at  the  roots  that  if  vou  take  hold  of  a  leat* 


148  SUCCESS    IN  FARMING. 

and  give  a  quick  jerk,  a  piece  of  the  leaf  will  break  out 
instead  of  the  plant  coming  up  by  the  roots,  then  with 
hands  on  each  side  of  the  hill,  draw  up  the  mellow  earth 
so  as  to  leave  but  an  inch  or  so  of  the  plant  above  ground, 
and  almost  every  plant  will  grow.  In  cultivating,  alt 
that  is  necessary,  if  you  have  followed  my  directions,  is 
to  keep  down  the  weeds,  for  the  potatoes,  when  they 
grow,  will  crack  the  hill  and  make  it  loose. 


CHAPTEK    XV. 


RYE  ON  THE  FARM. 

ITS  VALUE    AND  USES. 

I  do  not  consider  lye  a  profitable  crop  to  grow  for 
grain,  and  usually  prefer  to  hiij  my  seed  rather  thap.  to 
raise  it,  and  3'et  as  a  crop  I  value  it  highly. 

It  is  hardy,  useful  for  a  great  man}"  purposes,  and  can 
be  grown  at  but  little  expense. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  it  as  a  green  manure  and  of 
the  fact  that  it  can  be  grown  for  this  purpose  between 
two  crops  of  corn  without  losing  the  use  of  the  land  a 
season.  The  straw  brings  in  our  cit}"  markets  nearly  as 
much  as  the  best  timothy  hay,  and  the  market  is  ncA^er 
-overstocked  with  it. 

The  railroads  refuse  to  carry  rye  straw  unless  baled, 
but  the  farmer  who  lives  near  a  city  so  that  he  can 
wagon  it  to  market  will  find  it  a  ver}^  profitable  crop. 

Rye  is  of  great  value  for  pasture,  and  stock  can  be 
turned  on  it  two  weeks  before  any  other  pasture  is  ready 
and  it  will  furnish  a  large  amount  of  feed.  Sometimes, 
on  account  of  a  dry  spring,  we  fail  to  get  a  stand  of  grass 
or  clover,  and  this  is  a  great  disadvantage,  as  our  rota- 
tion calls  for  the  pasture  field  of  one  year  for  the  corn 
field  of  the  next.  Rye  helps  us  out  of  the  difficulty.  We 
can- plow  the  stubble  field  and  seed  with  rye  and  timo- 
thy, or  take  the  stubble  field  for  corn  or  wheat,  and  seed 
a  corn  field  with  rye  and  timothy  for  the  pasture.  The 
rje  will  furnish  early  feed,  and  the  timothy  will  not  be 


U50  SUCCESS    IN    FAinilXG. 

damaged  }>y  the  tramping,  and  by  the  time  the  lye  is  too 
<oM,  will  furnish  good  food. 

l^ye  is  useful  in  preventing  washing.  If  a  gully  has 
started  in  a  pasture,  rye  ean  be  scattered  on  the  bottom 
and  sides,  and  when  it  starts  to  grow  it  will  protect  the 
young  grass  and  hold  the  soil  until  a  sod  forms. 

Rye  straw  makes  the  best  possible  material  for  l>ind- 
tng  corn  fodder. 

Early  cut  rye  straw  is  an  excellent  food  for  horses, 
when  cut  up.  It  is  soft,  bright,  free  from  dust,  nutri- 
tious, and  makes  a  good  substitute  for  sheaf  oats. 

I  have  seen  a  statement  of  two  crops  of  r3'e  grown  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, that  produced  over  four  tons  of  straw  to  the- 
acre.  This  was  the  result  of  liberal  manuring  and  heavy 
seeding. 

CULTIVATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

The  cultivation  of  lye  is  extremeh'  simple.  It  should 
be  sown  at  the  same  time  of  year  as  wheat,  but  the  exact 
date  of  planting  is  of  much  less  importance.  It  can  be 
sown  among  corn  immediately  after  the  last  plowing,  if 
the  cultivation  has  been  continued  late,  and  left  to  take 
care  of  itself;  and  I  have  made  a  good  crop  when  sown 
so  late  in  the  fall  that  it  did  not  come  up  till  the  ground 
thawed  the  following  spring.  It  will  grow  even  though 
only  scattered  on  the  surface  of  the  land  and  left  uncov- 
ered, though  of  course  it  is  better  to  treat  it  with  more 
care. 

I  have  seen  the  statement,  though  I  could  not  vouch  for 
its  truth,  that  rye  scattered  broadcast  on  a  tough 
prairie  sod  will  grow,  and  so  completely  root  out  the 
jprairie  grass  that  the  land  can  be  readily  plowed  the 
following  year.  Land  must  be  poor,  indeed,  on  which 
Tje  -will  not  grow;  but  of  course  when  grown  as  a  fertil- 
izing crop,  the  more  barn-3'ard  manure  can  be  applied  a^ 


RYP.  ON  THE  FARM.  151 

a  top  dressing  at  seeding,  the  greater  will  be  the  im- 
provement of  the  land.  When  sown  for  grain,  I  would 
sow  from  three  to  four  pecks  to  the  acre;  for  straw  or 
pasture,  somewhat  heavier,  and  for  fertilizer,  as  much  as 
three  or  four  bushels  to  the  acre. 

I  always  cut  rye  when  in  blossom,  which,  in  my  lati- 
tude, is  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  May.  The  straw 
is  tougher  and  more  pliable  if  cut  then  than  if  the  grain 
is  allowed  to  ripen;  and  moreover,  in  using  the  straw  for 
bands  in  tying  fodder,  a^ou  will  not  get  the  corn  field 
seeded  down  to  rye,  which  is  a  great  drawback  if  you 
sow  wheat  on  your  corn  land.  I  never  could  get  rye 
straw  thrashed  so  clean  that  it  would  not  scatter  seed 
afterward,  if  the  grain  had  been  allowed  to  ripen. 

If  clover  is  sown  witli  therj^e,  the  early  cutting  I  have 
recommended  gives  the  clover  a  long  summer  in  which 
to  develop,  and  it  will  make  quite  a  crop  to  turn  under 
for  corn  the  next  year. 

I  should  expect  land  to  steadily  improve,  growing  a 
crop  of  corn  and  a  crop  of  rye  straw  alternate  years,  pro- 
vided clover  was  sown  with  the  rye. 


CIIAPTEE     Xyi 


SPECIAL  CROPS. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  crops,  whicli,  though  not 
grown  on  every  farm,  are  nevertheless  in  many  cases 
profitable. 

BARLEY. 

The  same  rules  laid  down  for  wheat  will  be  applica- 
ble for  barley. 

OATS. 

.  Like  wheat,  oats  require  a  compact  seed-bed,  and  on 
corn  land  it  is  best  not  to  plow,  but  simply  to  cultivate 
the  soil  with  some  of  the  improved  harrows  or  pulver- 
izers, until  the  surface-  is  thoroughly  mellow.  Even  on 
stubble  land  some  of  the  best  crops  have  been  grown  by 
simph'  cultivating  with  the  double  corn  plow,  or  harrow- 
ing and  cross  harrowing  with  the  Randall  Harrow,  or 
some  similar  implement.  The  great  ix)int  is  a  compact 
seed-bed  with  a  well  pulverized  surface. 

Sow  as  earh"  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  I  once 
sowed  in  February  on  a  piece  of  flat  clay  land,  and  the 
month  following  was  so  excessively  wet  that  the  land 
was  like  mortar,  and  the  weather  then  turned  cold,  snow 
fell,  and  thermometer  went  down  to  eight  degrees  above 
zero,  and  yet  I  got  a  good  crop. 

FODDER  CORN 

Can  be  made  a  crop  of  much  greater  value  and  impor- 
tance than  some  farmers  are  inclined  to  believe.  There 
should  be  at  least  a  small  patch  grown  on  every  farm,  so 


SPECIAL  CKOPS.  153 

•as  to  furnish  the  cows  feed  in  case  of  a  dry  spell  and 
consequent  short  pastures.  I  believe  that  an  acre  of 
land  will  produce  more  food  in  this  crop  than  in  any 
other  that  can  be  grown  on  it. 

But  by  fodder  corn  I  do  not  mean  sowed  corn,  which 
I  consider  ver}^  poor  food  for  stock.  Sowed  corn  has  to 
be  cut  while  immature,  and  therefore  innutritions,  and 
is  Aery  troublesome  to  cure. 

Fodder  corn,  planted  as  I  shall  recommend,  will  de- 
velop so  as  to  make  sweet,  nutritious  food,  and  in  fa- 
vorable years  will  mature  small  ears,  which  will  greatly 
add  to  its  value. 

George  Waring,  in  his  experience  with  dairy  stock  on 

Ogden  Farm,  was  so  pleased  with  it  that  he  wrote  : 

"  Corn  for  grain,  never ; 
Corn  for  fodder   foreA'er !  " 

Fodder  corn  may  be  planted  quite  late.  I  have  grown 
heaA-y  crops  on  land  from  which  the  early  potatoes  had 
been  dug;  but  June  is  about  the  best  time.  It  is  most 
easily  planted  with  a  drill;  and  with  a  force-feed  wheat 
drill  from  two  to  three  roAvs  can  be  planted  at  a  time. 
The  rows  should  be  three  feet  apart,  so  as  to  admit  of 
C'ultivation.     Do  not  get  it  too  thick  in  the  rows 

Blount's  Prolific  is  the  most  profitable  A^ariety  for  fod- 
der, as  it  produces  several  small  ears  to  the  stalk  and  a 
large  quantity  of  blades.  Stowell  Evergreen  is  excel- 
lent, but  any  field  variety'  will  do. 

As  soon  as  fully  grown,  and  the  ears  beginning  to 
harden,  fodder  corn  can  be  cut  up  and  shocked  as  other 
^orn,  and  when  cured  can  be  stacked  or  hauled  into  the 
barn. 

BROOM  CORN. 

This  crop  requires  a  large  amount  of  labor,  but  is 
£>ften  verA'  profitable.     The  man  with  a  small  farm  will 


154  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMIXG. 

sometimes  find  emplojanent  for  winter  and  largely  in- 
crease his  profits  by  growing  this  crop  and  manufac- 
turing it  himself  The  machinery  for  manufacturing 
costs  but  a  few  dollars,  and  the  business  is  easil}^  and 
quickl}^  learned. 

Broom  corn  requires  a  warm,  rich  soil.  The  best  corn 
and  barley  land  is  suited  to  it,  and  it  is  ver}'  imtxjrtant 
that  the  field  be  clean,  as  the  plant  comes  up  small  and 
weak  and  starts  rather  slowly. 

Be  sure  to  have  good  seed.  I  would  put  it  in  water,_ 
and  reject  all  that  would  not  sink,  even  though  it  took 
ten  bushels  of  seed  from  which  to  get  one. 

Do  not  plant  till  the  weather  is  settled  and  the  ground 
warm.  I  prefer  to  plant  by  hand,  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  making  a  hill  every  two  feet  in  the  row,  with  from 
six  to  ten  stalks  in  the  hill.  This  gives  much  more  la- 
bor than  drilling,  but  you  save  the  subsequent  labor 
of  thinning,  and  it  is  easier  to  cultivate  and  "table." 

Cultivation  should  be  thorough,  and  no  weeds  be  per- 
mitted to  grow.  If  your  land  is  clean  and  3  ou  have  fen- 
ders to  your  plow  so  as  to  enable  3'ou  to  get  close  to  )X 
while  young,  a  crop  can  be  grown  without  hoeing;  but 
it  is  better  to  hoe  than  to  allow  it  to  become  weedy. 

As  soon  as  it  is  fuU^^  grown  it  is  ready  to  cut,  and  the 
brush  will  be  worth  nearly  double  what  it  will  be  If  the 
seed  is  allowed  to  ripen.  Before  cutting,  it  is  "tabled"^ 
— by  which  we  mean  that  two  rows  are  broken  about  two 
feet  from  the  ground,  so  that  the  stalks  fall  diagonally 
across  each  other  and  the  brush  projects  into  the  inter- 
vening spaces.  When  the  brush  is  cut  it  is  laid  on  these 
''  tables,"  which  form  an  excellent  place  for  it  to  cure,  as 
the  air  can  circulate  through  it  and  the  water  run  ofl:'. 
As  soon  as  possible  after  cutting,  it  should  be  scraped  and 
cured  in  sheds  on  racks,  as  this  makes  it  tough  and  pliable. 


SPECIAL    CKOPS. 


loS' 


A  suppl}'  of  these  racks  must  be  kept  on  hand,  and  it 
therefore  does  not  paj'  to  grow  broom  corn  unless  you 
expect  to  follow  it  regularly.  These  racks  should  be 
moveable,  so  that  the  sheds  can  be  used  for  storing  fod- 
der or  other  purposes,  when  not  in  use  for  the  broom 
corn. 

An  average  crop  is  about  five  hudred  pounds  of  cured 
brush  per  acre ;  but  on  good  land  this  is  sometimes  dou- 
bled. The  price  fluctuates  greatl}'.  I  have  known  it  ta 
sell  for  three  hundred  dollars  a  ton,  and  as  low  as  forty; 
but  it  usuall}^  brings  a  paying  price  and  can  be  easily 
stored  and  held  over  when  the  price  is  too  low. 

NAVY  BEANS 

May  often  be  grown  at  a  profit,  and  leave  the  ground  in 
excellent  condition  for  wheat.  After  the  bean  crop  has 
been  harvested,  the  ground  needs  onh^  a  thorough  har- 
rowing, and  wall  produce  as  heav}'  a  crop  of  wheat  as 
can  be  grown  on  it. 

The  land  should  be  plowed  early  and  Avorked  occa- 
sionally, to  kill  the  weeds  and  get  it  in  good  condition. 
I  usually  plant  about  the  tenth  of  June,  using  the  wheat 
drill,  stopping  enough  hoes  to  make  the  rows  about  two 
feet  apart.  From  three  to  four  pecks  of  seed  are  re- 
quired for  an  acre. 

The  crop  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  weedy,  but 
will  need  little  cultivation,  as  it  will  soon  so  shade  the 
ground  that  nothing  else  will  grow.  The  beans  usually 
ripen  about  the  first  of  September,  but  sometimes  will 
keep  green  a  w^eek  or  two  later.  In  this  case  they  may  be 
pulled  while  the  pods  are  yet  green,  and  cured  in  the 
barn,  or  stacked  and  cured  in  the  field.  To  stack  it, 
set  up  a  stake  in  the  ground,  sharp  at  the  top.  Arrange 
some  sticks  of  wood  around  the  stake  to  keep  the  beans 
off  the  ground,  or  put  two  long  pins  through  it  in  oppo- 


156  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

site  directions,  about  a  foot  from  the  ground ;  then  slide 
the  beans  down  over  the  point  of  the  stake  till  it  is  full 
to  the  top.  Unless  the  weather  is  exceedingly  bad,  they 
will  cure  perfectly. 

PUMPKINS. 

I  have  found  this  a  profitable  crop  for  fall  feeding. 
They  come  in  at  a  time  when  pasture  is  usually  short, 
and  are  a  valuable  feed  for  both  cattle  and  hogs.  Fed 
to  cows,  they  increase  the  flow  of  the  milk,  improve  the 
quality  and  the  color  of  butter.  There  is  a  preva- 
lent opinion  that  the  seeds  must  be  removed  in 
feeding  to  milk  cows,  or  they  will  check  the  ftow  of 
milk,  and  there  is  considerable  evidence  to  this  effect; 
but  in  a  long  experience  I  have  not  found  this  to  be  the 
case. 

For  hogs  they  are  not  only  highly  fattening,  but  supply 
the  need  for  variety,  enabling  them  to  relish  other  food 
better. 

They  are  nsualh'  grown  in  the  corn  field,  a  little* seed 
being  mixed  with  the  corn  in  the  hopper  of  planter  or 
drill ;  but  I  prefer  to  grow  alone,  and  as,  with  moderate 
■care,  they  are  wonderfully  productive,  a  very  small  piece 
of  land  ma\^  be  made  to  produce  all  any  farmer  can  use, 
and  the  trouble  of  having  them  among  the  corn  avoided. 
By  the  use  of  manure  in  the  hill,  they  can  be  grown  on 
•quite  poor  land. 

Plant  in  hills  eight  feet  apart  each  way,  manuring  lib- 
erally^ in  the  hill  if  you  wish  a  heav^^  crop.  Use  plenty 
of  seed,  as  it  is  cheap  and  not  always  certain.  When 
the  plants  are  thoroughly  established,  thin  to  three  in  a 
hill,  which  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  land.  Do  not 
plant  till  the  weather  is  quite  warm  and  settled,  my 
best  crops  have  been  planted  the  last  of  May  or  first  of 
June. 


SPECIAL  CROPS.  15T 

For  variety,  I  prefer  the  yellow-ribbed,  known  as  the 
''Yankee  Pumpkin,"  it  is  more  productive  than  the  va- 
riety usually  grown  at  the  West,  and  the  flesh  being  thin- 
ner and  less  firm,  cattle  can  eat  them  without  chopping.* 

ROOT  CROPS. 

More  of  these  would  be  profitable  on  manj^  farms,  and 
are  excellent  food  for  dairy  cattle;  in  fact,  for  stock  of 
almost  ever}^  kind. 

Mangolds,  or  sugar  beets,  are  the  best  and  most  pro- 
lific of  all,  and  do  not  impart  any  objectionable  flavor  to 
th3  milk  of  cows  fed  on  them.  Five  hundred  bushels  to 
the  acre  is  a  moderate  yield,  and  more  than  double  this 
has  been  grown.  The  Yellow  Globe  Mangold  is  the  best 
on  most  soils ;  but  I  would  advise  the  beginner  to  try 
different  varieties  and  see  which  suits  his  particular  soil 
the  best.  It  is  well  to  begin  any  new  crop  on  a  small 
scale,  and  increase  as  you  gain  experience. 

They  require  rich  land,  and  give  a  liberal  return  for 
liberal  manuring.  Plow  in  fall  into  beds  twelve  to  twenty 
feet  wide,  and  so  arranged  that  the  water  will  run  ofi". 
If  3"our  manure  is  coarse,  plow  it  under  in  fall,  but  if 
fine  and  well  rotted,  save  it  and  appl}^  as  a  top  dressing 
in  the  spring. 

As  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked 
nicely,  mellow  your  beds  and  put  in  the  seed  in  rows  two 
and  a  half  feet  apart.  Plant  just  as  early  as  the  weather 
will  permit.     I  alwaj^s  get  them  planted  in  March  or 


*We  are  surprised  that  Mr.  Brown,  with  his  Yankee  extrac- 
tion, should  have  failed  to  mention  one  of  the  great  uses  of  the 
pumpkin,  namely,  pumpkin  pie.  The  great  problem  is,  how 
to  keep  them,  so  that  this  delicious  article  be  not  restricted  to 
Thanksgiving  and  Christmas.  If  a  few  choice  sound  pump- 
kins be  laid  on  a  shelf  in  a  dry  cellar,  safe  from  frost,  and  each 
be  turned  over  every  day,  they  can  in  many  cases  be  kept  for 
many  months.  The  rotting  of  the  pumpkin  is  caused  by  the 
water  in  the  flesh  settling  to  one  side.  b.  s.  t» 


35S  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMINO. 

April   if  possible.       The    frost   will   not   injure   them. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough,  thin  to  one 
foot  apart  in  the  rows,  and  if  any  vacancies  are  found, 
fill  them  by  tninsplanting.  This  early  thinning  is  im- 
portant, as  the  crop  will  be  greatly  damaged  if  not 
thinned  at  the  proper  time. 

Keep  the  land  clean. 

The  distances  I  have  recommended  will  give  over  sev- 
enteen thousand  plants  to  the  acre,  and  at  an  average  of 
two  pounds  each,  would  furnish  nearly  six  hundred 
bushels. 

The  crop  may  be  stored  in  the  cellar,  or  pitted,  like  po- 
tatoes. The  best  time  to  use  them  is  the  latter  part  of 
winter,  as  they  go  through  a  ripening  process  which  im- 
proves them,  and  cattle  are  more  in  need  of  a  loosening 
feed  at  that  time. 

Turnips. — The  common  flat  turnip  is  the  easiest  grown 
of  all  the  root  crops,  and  I  have  sold  single  crops  for 
Jiiore  than  the  land  on  which  they  w^ere  grown  was  w^orth. 
I  have  grown  five  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  often 
two  hundred  and  fifty  and  three  hundred.  When  the 
i'rop  can  be  sold  for  anything  over  20  cents  a  bushel,  it 
is  very  profitable,  and  I  have  sold  them  by  the  car  load 
lit  33  cents,  and  by  the  wagon  load  at  60  cents  per  bushel. 
The  crop  can  be  grown  so  cheaply  that  if  you  get  a  fair 
price  once  in  three  years  and  feed  to  cattle  the  other 
years,  it  will  pay  to  grow  them. 

The  actual  cost  of  growing  and  pitting  when  you  get 
u  good  yield,  will  not  exceed  5  cents  a  bushel. 

Mau}^  persons  fail  in  growing  turnips  from  lack  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  requisites  of  success.  The  essentials 
are  that  the  ground  should  be  moderately  rich,  well  com- 
pacted, and  mellow  on  the  surface,  and  that  the  turnips 
should  come  up  quickly  and  get  the  start  of  the  weeds. 


SrECIAL   CHOPS.  159 

It  is  useless  to  sow  turnips  on  the  surface  of  a  freshly- 
plowed  field.  The  more  hard,  beating  rains  it  has  after 
plowing  the  better,  but  it  must  be  free  from  weeds. 

It  was  the  practice  in  New  England  half  a  century 
ago,  to  plow  the  turnip  land  in  the  spring,  fold  the  sheep 
on  it  all  summer,  and  then  merely  loosen  the  surface 
with  a  harrow  sufficient  to  enable  the  seed  to  be  covered. 
This  secured — the  packing  of  the  land  by  the  tramping 
of  the  sheep,  its  fertilization  by  their  droppings,  and 
also  protection  from  the  turnip  ilea,  as  the  oil  from  the 
wool  destroys  them. 

I  recentl}^  heard  of  this  plan  being  tried  in  Ohio:  A 
piece  of  stubble  land  was  plowed  in  Jul}',  and  the  sheep 
turned  on  it  each  night  till  planting  time.  Part  of  the 
land  being  a  little  muddy,  the  sheep  avoided  it,  and  lay 
every  night  on  one  side  of  the  field.  On  that  side  a  heavy 
crop  was  grown,  while  on  the  side  avoided  by  the  sheep 
the  crop  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the  flea. 

I  like  to  plant  on  a  clover  sod,  from  which  a  crop  of 
clover  has  been  cut.  This  should  be  plowed  in  June, 
and  repeatedly  rolled  and  harrowed,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  getting  a  compact  bed  and  destroying  weeds.  If 
you  can  also  fold  sheep  on  it  part  of  the  time,  as  above 
suo-wsted,  of  course  so  much  the  better.  If  the  land 
is  poor,  it  should  have,  before  planting,  a  light  dressing 
of  well  fined  manure,  or  about  two  hundred  pounds  of 
superphosphate  per  acre. 

The  best  time  in  this  latitude  for  sowing  turnips  is 
the  first  week  in  August,  but  if  the  weather  is  favorable, 
it  will  do  to  sow  a  week  earlier  or  later.  In  a  favorable 
fall  they  will  bottom  if  sown  the  first  of  September. 

When  the  time  for  sowing  has  come,  wait  for  a  rain, 
and  as  soon  after  the  rain  as  the  ground  can  be  worked 
without  packing,   sow,   and   cover  by   drawing  a  plank 


160  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

over  the  land.  This  smoothes  the  surface,  presses  the 
soil  against  the  seed  and  insures  quick  germination.  If 
you  are  planting  several  acres,  a  horse  can  be  hitched  to- 
each  end  of  a  sixteen-foot  plank  and  a  quick  job  made  of 
it.  Many  persons  prefer  planting  just  before  a  rain,  so- 
as  to  let  the  rain  wash  the  seed  into  the  soil.  This  saves 
the  labor  of  covering,  but  often  loses  the  crop.  The  rain 
forms  a  crust  which  prevents  the  plants  from  making  a 
thrifty  start,  and  destruction  by  the  fl}^  is  often  the  con- 
sequence; and  if  the  plants  do  grow,  the  weeds  get  the 
start  with  them.  When  sown  as  I  direct,  after  a  rain^ 
the  plants  come  up  thrifty  and  strong  and  get  the  start 
of  the  weeds. 

Turnips  can  be  pitted  in  exactly  the  same  manner  a& 
directed  for  potatoes. 

They  form  an  excellent  feed  for  cattle,  but  in  many 
cases  it  is  found  that  when  fed  to  milk  cows  they  im- 
part a  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  milk.  It  is  claimed  by 
some  that  this  can  be  avoided  by  onl}^  feeding  them  im^- 
mediately  after  milking. 


CHAPTER    XVII 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  ' 

THE  VALUE  OF    FRUIT. 

Every  farmer  can  secure  from  fruit  not  only  enjoyment, 
but  health  and  profit,  and  it  has  been  a  surprise  to  me 
that  so  many  of  our  farms  are  destitute  of  this  luxurj-. 

I  see  many  farms  on  which  an  inventor}^  of  the  fruit 
trees  ■would  show  nothing  but  a  neglected  apple  orchard 
— which  probably  was  planted  before  the  owner  was  born 
—  a  few  sour  cherries,  surounded  by  a  wilderness  of 
sprouts,  and  possibh^  a  few  seedling  peaches,  either  in 
the  calf  pasture,  or  allowed  to  grow  in  the  fence  corners, 
where  they  will  not  take  up  room  that  could  be  used  for 
corn  and  potatoes. 

Not  only  is  an  abundant  supph^  of  fruit  a  great  luxury, 
but  it  forms  a  cheap  and  healthful  article  of  diet,  and 
one  that  can  be  enjoyed  the  whole  year  through,  for  a 
constant  succession  may  easily  be  secured  from  the  time 
we  gather  the  first  strawberries  till  the  last  clusters  of 
grapes  are  eaten,  and  then  we  can  have  the  closets  stored 
with  canned  fruit,  and  the  cellars  filled  with  winter 
apples. 

The  health  of  our  people  would  be  better  if  more  fruit 
was  annuall}^  consumed. 

Nor  is  it  a  difficult  matter.  The  same  care  and  com- 
mon sense  needed  to  produce  a  crop  of  corn  will  insure 
success  in  the  production  of  a  crop  of  fruit. 

In  addition  to  the  apple  orchard,  there  should  be  a 


162  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

fruit  lot  on  every  farm,  containing  cherries,  pears,  plums, 
quinces  and  peaches.  Raspberries,  currants  and  straw- 
berries should  have  their  place,  and  grape  vines  should 
cover  the  outbuildings,  or  run  on  trellises  along  the  walks 
and  drives. 

I  have  on  my  farm  such  a  plat,  containing  less  than 
an  acre,  and  for  the  past  five  ^ears  it  has  not  only  sup- 
plied all  the  fruit  we  could  use  in  the  family,  and  al- 
lowed us  to  put  up  each  3^ear  a  liberal  amount  of  canned 
fruit,  but  we  have  also  sold  an  average  of  over  $60  worth 
of  fruit  a  year. 

A  curious  fact  connected  with  this  last  item  is  that  most 
of  this  fruit  has  been  sold  to  farmers  who  could  have 
bought  the  trees  and  set  out  a  fruit  lot  the  same  size  as 
mine  for  less  than  what  they  pay  me  each  year. 

FRUIT  FOR  PROFIT. 

There  is  always  a  market  for  realh'  fine  fruit,  and 
fruit-growing  is  a  business  I  would  recommend  to  the 
3'oung  man  of  enterprise,  if  he  is  within  reach  of  a  good 
market  and  will  take  the  pains  to  make  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  business.  A  small  amount  of  land 
will  bring  a  large  income  in  good  seasons,  and  if  it  con- 
tain a  general  variety  of  fruit,  some  will  be  sure  to  pro- 
duce every  year. 

Before  planting  largely,  visit  and  consult  with  the 
fruit-growers  of  your  neighborhood.  Even  farmers  who 
grow  little  fruit  may  be  able  to  give  you  valuable  ad- 
vice on  the  varieties  to  plant.  It  would  be  folly  to  plant 
blackberries  extensively  where  the  rust  prevailed,  or 
plums  where  there  was  black  knot,  or  pears  where 
blight  was  destructive. 

Were  I  going  into  the  business,  and  had  ten  acres  of 
suitable  land  to  plant,  I  would  set  one  acre  (160  trees) 
in  Early  Richmond  cherries,  one  acre  (160  trees)   in 


FRUIT  OX  THE  FARM.  163 

f^hropsliire  Damson  plums,  one  acre  (302  trees)  in 
<]ninces,  one  acre  in  grapes  in  variet}',  setting  the  rows 
north  and  south,  and  planting  strawberries  between. 
One  acre  I  would  reserve  for  garden  and  experimenting 
with  new  varieties  of  strawberries,  and  five  acres  I  would 
[>lant  in  winter  apples  and  in  peaches,  giving  200  trees 
of  the  former  and  600  of  the  latter.  I  should  not  attempt 
to  set  out  all  these  in  one  yenv,  nor  in  two;  but  should 
put  out  each  year  what  I  could  do  well  and  take  care  of. 
My  reason  for  the  proportion  given  is,  that  I  know 
how  these  trees  succeed  in  my  locality  and  the  prices 
they  command  in  the  markets  I  h^'e  access  to.  Here 
peaches  bear  fully  half  the  years,  grapes  and  quinces 
nine  years  out  of  ten,  cherries  of  the  varieties  named 
four  years  out  of  five,  and  the  Damson  plums  are  reliable 
bearers,  though  no  other  variety  can  be  depended  on. 
Of  course,  in  some  other  locality  all  this  would  be  differ- 
ent ;  hence  my  advice  to  the  beginner  to  carefully  study 
the  peculiarities  of  his  own  location  and  market  before 
•commencing  his  orchard. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  ORCHARD. 

■  A  northern  or  eastern  exposure  is  better  than  one  to 
the  south.  Hilly  land,  unfitted  for  cultivation,  often 
makes  excellent  land  for  fruit.  The  best  land  is  a  roll- 
ing clay,  with  good  natural  drainage;  the  worst,  for 
most  varieties  of  fruit,  is  a  rich  black  loam  or  alluvial 
soil. 

Of  course,  when  possible,  the  orchard  should  be  near 
the  house,  both  for  convenience  of  the  famil}-  and  pro- 
tection of  the  fruit. 

SELECTION  OF  TREES. 

The  first  need  in  tree  planting  is  to  get  healthy  young 
trees,  true  to  name.  Be  sure  and  buy  of  responsible 
men.     I  would  as  soon  trust  a  "  three-card-monte"  man. 


164  SUCCESS    IX   FARMING. 

as  a  fruit  tree  agent  of  whom  I  knew  nothing.  Thous- 
ands of  dollars  are  paid  out  every  year  for  worse  than 
worthless  stock,  and  at  prices  double  what  the  best 
stock  could  have  been  purchased  for  from  responsible 
men.  And  yet  those  who  allow  themselves  to  be  thus 
swindled  seem  to  be  shrewd  business  men  in  other  trans- 
actions. 

After  an  experience  of  twenty-five  years,  during  which 
time  I  have  set  out  and  fruited  over  a  thousand  trees,  I 
can  fully  indorse  the  following  advice,  which  I  copy  from 
the  catalogue  of  an  experienced  nurseryman : 

PLANT   YOUNG    TREES. 

They  cost  less  at  the  nursery,  in  freight  charges,  also  in 
handling  and  planting. 

They  are  surer  to  grow,  having  more  and  better  roots  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  their  tops.  Large  trees  lose  in  moving 
more  of  their  fibrous  roots. 

Having  less  top  and  almost  perfect  roots,  the  small  trees 
become  established  sooner,  and  grow  vigorously  at  once. 

Making  most  of  their  growth  on  the  ground  where  they 
are  to  stand,  the  small  trees  soon  ))ecome  adapted  to  the  soil 
and  location,  and  the  planter  can  train  them  to  such  shape  as 
he  desires. 

If  you  give  these  young  trees  good  care,  you  will  not  lose 
any  time,  but  will  get  a  liandsomer  and  more  valuable  orchard. 

We  find  that  the  most  experienced  and  successful  tree 
planters  will  not  buy  large  trees,  but  invariably  prefer  one- 
and  two-year  old  trees. 

CHOICE  OF  VARIETIES. 

I  am  indebted  for  the  following  list  to  my  brother,  B.. 
H.  Brown,  who,  as  a  nurseryman  and  fruit-grower,  has 
made  a  careful  study  of  the  matter,  and  has  tested  every 
variety  named,  as  well  as  many  which  he  has  discarded. 
This  list  is  what  he  would  recommend  for  family  use; 
but  the  beginner  must  remember  what  has  already  been 
said  about  consulting  the  needs  of  his  own  locality. 

Apples. — Early :  Early  Harvest,  Benoni,  Red  Astra- 
chan.  Fall :  Maiden  Blush,  Porter,  Bellmont,  Fall  Wine, 
Fall  Pippin,  Jersey  Sweet.    Winter :   Yellow  Bellflower, 


FKUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  165 

Baldwin,  Smith  Cider,  Rambo,  White  Pippin,  Wine  Sap, 
Oolden  Russet,  Ben  Davis,  Rome  Beauty,  Rawles  Janette, 
Wagoner. 

Peaches. — Troth's  Early,  Early  Amsden,  Crawford's 
Early,  Craw^ford's  Late,  Smock,  Stump  the  World,  Old 
Mixon,  Switzerland,  Oxford  Late,  Heath  Cling,  Salway. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Osband's  Summer,  Sheldon,  Tyson, 
Seckle,  Clapp's  Favorite,  Lawrence.  Duchess,  Bloodgood, 

Cherries. — Earl}^  Richmond,  May  Duke,  Early  Pur- 
ple Quigne,  Bowman's  May,  Elton,  Black  Tartarian,  and 
■Governor  Wood. 

Currants. — ^White  Grape,  Red  Dutch,  Versailes. 

Raspberries. — Black:  Gregg,  Mammoth  Cluster.  Red: 
Turner,  Cuthbert. 

Strawberries.  —  Cumberland  Triumph,  Sharpless, 
Crescent  Seedling,  Charles  Downing,  Kentuck}^ 

Blackberries. — Lawton,  Kittatinny,  Snyder. 

Grapes. — Hartford  Prolific,  Concord,  Martha,  Lady, 
Catawba. 

Plums. — Shropshire  Damson. 

Quince. — Orange. 

The  following  list  is  for  a  large  orchard,  and  gives  the 
number  of  each  variety  recommended  for  an  orchard  of 
one  thousand  apple.  Smith  Cider  300,  Wine  Sap  200,  Ben 
Davis  200,  Rome  Beauty  100,  White  Pippin  100,  Rawles 
■Janette  100. 

Of  one  thousand  peaches,  set  Switzerland  200,  Old 
Mixon  150,  Stump  the  World  150,  Smock  150,  Oxford 
Late  100,  Ward's  Late  50,  Gudgeon's  Late  50,  Troth's 
Early  50,  Salway  50,  Heath  Cling  50. 

For  one  hundred  pears,  plant  Bartlett  25,  Duchess  20, 
Beurre  Clairgean  15,  Clapp's  Favorite  10,  Flemish 
Beauty  10,  Seckle  5,  Tyson  5. 

For  one  hundred  cherries,  plant  Early  Richmond  50, 


166  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

Elton  20,  Black  Tartarian  10,  May  Duke  10,  Governor 
Wood  10. 

DISTANCES  IN  PLANTING, 

Apples  ma3^  be  planted  tliirt}^  three  feet  apart  each 
way;  pears  sixteen  to  twenty  feet;  peaches  and  plums 
sixteen  feet;  small  A'arieties,  of  cherries,  such  as  Early 
Richmond  and  Morello,  sixteen  feet;  large  heart  cherries 
twenty  feet;  quinces  twelve  feet. 

In  all  cases,  where  the  width  of  planting  is  less  than 
twent^^  feet,  it  is  well  to  leave  every  fifth  space  twenty 
feet,  so  as  to  enable  you  to  drive  through  with  the  wagon 
to  haul  in  manure  and  haul  out  the  fruit. 

Where  an  apple  orchard  is  to  be  planted,  and  you 
wisli  to  grow  peaches  at  the  same  time,  the  apples  may 
be  set  thirty-three  feet  apart  each  way,  and  peaches  set 
between,  thus — the  stars  representing  the  apples  and  the 
x's  the  peaches: 


This  w411  give  on  an  acre  120  peach  trees  and  40  apple 
trees,  and  by  the  time  the  apples  spread  so  as  to  need 
the  room,  the  peaches  will  be  out  of  the  wa3\  In  1858  I 
set  an  orchard  of  four  hundred  trees  in  this  way,  and  was- 
very  successful  with  both  peaches  and  apples. 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  167 

PLANTING,  CULTURE  AND  FRUNTLNG. 

In  planting,  I  dig  a  liole  two  spades  deep,  putting  the 
top  soil  on  one  side  and  the  subsoil  on  the  other.  The 
width  must  exceed  the  greatest  spread  of  the  roots. 
When  read}^  to  set  the  tree,  cut  down  the  sides  of  the 
hole  so  as  to  fill  the  bottom  with  fine  and  mellow  top 
soil  until  there  is  enough  to  make  the  tree  stand  at  the 
proper  depth ;  then  fill  in  the  surface  soil,  which  has  been 
laid  on  one  side  of  the  hole  for  this  purpose,  carefully 
sifting  it  among  the  roots,  so  as  to  leave  no  cavities,  and 
treading  it  down  firml3\  When  all  the  surface  soil  has 
been  put  in,  top  out  with  the  subsoil. 

Cultivation. — For  at  least  three  years  after  planting, 
cultivate  j^our  trees  as  well  as  }- ou  do  your  corn.  Thous- 
ands of  j^oung  fruit  trees  are  ruined  every  year  for  lack 
of  cultivation.  Do  not  allow  your  small  grain  or  tall 
corn  to  grow  among  them,  but  plant  beans,  pumpkins, 
potatoes,  or  some  small  variety  of  sweet  corn.  Especially 
avoid  small  grain,  but  if  you  must  plant  wheat  or  oats 
in  your  j^oung  orchard,  mulch  lieaA'ily  around  the  trees 
for  at  least  four  feet  each  way  from  the  tree. 

After  the  trees  are  grown,  all  orchards  still  need  cul- 
tivation to  some  extent,  excepting,  perhaps,  pears;  and 
some  of  our  most  successful  growers  of  this  fruit  think 
it  is  more  likel3'  to  blight  when  the  ground  is  cultivated 
than  when  kept  in  grass. 

The  apple  orchard  should  be  plowed  once  in  every 
three  or  four  years,  but  never  deep  enough  to  break  large 
roots.  Mulching  with  old  straw  or  coarse  manure  may 
take  the  place  of  cultiA  ation. 

Quinces  and  pears  I  would  keep  cultivated  every  year 
as  long  as  they  are  kept  bearing,  but  cultivation  should 
be  shallow,  and  I  would  not  attempt  to  grow  any  crop 
among  them  after  the  third  year.     If  three  inches  of  the 


168  SUCCESS   IN    FARMING. 

soil  is  stirred,  and  no  weeds  and  grass  allowed  to  grow, 
it  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

I  think  the  cultivation  can  be  done  best  with  one 
horse  and  a  single  shovel  plow  first,  and  then  across 
with  one  horse  and  a  double  shovel  plow.  Use  a  short 
single-tree  and  let  the  chains  be  wrapped  with  thick 
woolen  rags.  If  the  trees  have  branched  out  low,  do  not 
drive  too  closely  to  them ;  but  after  you  have  finished 
plowing,  take  a  light  mattock  and  loosen  the  soil  left  un- 
j)lowed  next  the  trees.  It  will  not  be  difficult  if  done 
soon  after  a  rain,  when  the  ground  is  soft. 

Pruning. — This  should  be  attended  to  while  the  trees 
are  young.  Always  have  a  reason  for  every  cut  you 
make.  Keep  in  mind  that  your  object  is  to  produce  an 
open,  symetrical  top,  well  balanced  and  open  to  sun  and 
air,  with  branches  that  will  not  chafe  each  other.  The 
ideal  for  the  underside  of  a  fruit  tree  is  an  inverted  um- 
brella. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  book  will  be  found  a  conve- 
nient table,  giving  the  number  of  trees  or  plants  in  an 
acre. 


CHAPTEE    XVIII. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN. 

A  well  managed  garden  of  a  quarter  of  an  acre  can  be 
made  to  produce  each  season  what  would  cost  in  market 
a  hundred  dollars — and  besides  its  money  value,  will  be 
a  great  addition  to  the  farmer's  table,  relieving  it  of  mo- 
notony and  adding  to  the  health  of  his  famih^ 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  strange  how  many  farms 
w^e  see  on  which  there  is  either  no  garden  at  all  or  else 
where  the  garden  is  badly  located,  badly  arranged  and 
badly  cared  for ;  often  allowed  to  grow  up  to  weeds  after 
crops  have  been  gathered  till  it  becomes  the  worst  spot 
on  the  farm  on  which  to  grow  crops  requiring  clean, 
culture. 

Every  farmer  ought  to  have  a  garden,  and  to  have  one 
there  are  certain  things  absolutely  necessary: 

The  soil  must  be  warm  and  easily  worked. 

It  must  be  rich. 

It  must  be  well  drained. 

It  must  be  free  from  weeds. 

And  in  addition  to  these  it  certainly  ought  to  be  con- 
venient to  the  house. 

If  the  soil  is  a  heavy  clay  it  will  pay  to  draw  sand 
and  black  loam  on  to  it.  If  on  the  other  hand  you  have 
to  deal  with  a  leachy  sand  the  addition  of  clay  will  be  a 
benefit. 

If  starting  on  a  new  spot,  I  would  spread  on  a  quarter 
acre  ten  loads  of  good  manure  in  the  fall  and  plow  under 


170  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

and  add  half  as  much  more  as  a  top  dressing  in  the 
spring.  After  this,  a  light  coating  of  manure  should  be 
given  every  year. 

The  garden  spot  must  be  well  drained.  In  chapter 
six  you  will  find  described  the  influence  of  under- 
draining  on  land,  and  for  the  garden  one  of  the  most 
A^aluable  points  is  that  it  enables  us  to  work  the  soil 
earlier.    In  this,  earliness  is  of  paramount  importance. 

In  addition  to  thorough  underdraining,  it  is  well  in 
the  fall  to  plow  into  beds  twelve  or  sixteen  feet  wide  and 
open  the  furrows  so  as  to  carry  off  all  surface  water.  By 
attention  to  these  two  points  you  will  have  your  garden 
ready  for  planting  some  weeks  earlier  in  the  spring. 

To  keep  a  garden  free  from  weeds  requires  vigilance. 
Cultivate  thoroughly.  Stir  the  soil  as  soon  after  a  rain 
as  it  is  in  fit  condition,  and  destroy  the  weeds  before 
they  get  above  the, surface.  N'ever  allow  a  iveed  to  go  to 
seed,  and  in  a  few  years  the  labor  of  cultivation  will  be 
reduced  one- half. 

Protection. — Drainage  and  fall  plowing  will  assist 
you  in  getting  the  garden  planted  early,  but  something 
more  is  sometimes  needed.  The  north  and  west  winds 
of  spring  are  often  cold,  and  a  protection  on  these  two 
sides  is  a  great  advantage.  Either  a  liigh  tight  board 
fence,  or  a  thick  evergreen  hedge  will  accomplish  the 
work ,  but  if  you  do  not  care  to  be  at  the  expense  of  a 
fence,  or  wait  for  a  hedge  to  grow,  a  very  good  and  cheap 
wind-break  can  be  made  with  corn  stalks.  Set  a  row  of 
posts,  and  three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground  nail  a 
cheap  board  on  each  side  directly  opposite  each  other. 
Then  set  large  strong  corn  stalks  between  these  boards, 
crowding  them  tightly  between  the  space. 

ARRANGEMENT  AND  CULTIVATION. 

To  economize  space,  and   permit   the  use  of  the  horse 


THE  YEGETAULE  GARDEN.  171 

or  hand  plow,  plant  everything  in  rows  running  the  full 
length  of  the  garden.  If  of  any  vegetable  an  entire  row 
would  give  you  too  much,  j^ou  can  plant  one  half 
way  and  finish  with  something  else. 

With  a  garden  laid  out  in  this  way,  you  can  with  a 
hand  plow — of  which  there  are  a  great  variety  in  use — 
stir  the  whole  quarter  acre  in  an  hour,  while  to  hoe  it 
would  require  the  greater  part  of  a  day. 

For  the  appearance,  and  also  to  enable  j^ou  to  get  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  rows  with  the  plow,  use  a  garden 
line  and  make  your  rows  as  straight  as  possible.  With 
a  narrow  shovel  on  your  plow  A'OU  can  mark  out  your 
rows  easily  and  rapidl}^,  and  with  the  line  as  a  guide  can 
get  them  straight. 

Planting  and  Rotation. — The  planting  season  in  the 
garden  in  this  latitude  begins  in  February  or  March 
and  ends  with  early  September.  There  are  many  plants 
which  on  a  well-drained  soil  will  bear  a  veiy  low  temper- 
ature without  injuiy.  I  have  often  planted  peas,  beets, 
radishes,  spinach,  onions  and  lettuce  in  February,  and 
had  them  do  well  though  March  was  cold  and  bluster- 
ing. Occasionally  the  beets  and  radishes  will  be  killed, 
but  I  have  known  them  to  escape  though  the  ground  was 
frozen  hard  enough  to  bear  up  a  wagon,  and  I  have  never 
known  the  others  injured  b}^  cold  though  the  mercury 
has  stood  at  only  eight  above  zero. 

Vegetables  ought  to  follow  each  other  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, and  as  soon  as  one  is  done  with,  another  should 
take  its  place.  Much  of  the  garden  may  be  made  to 
produce  more  than  one  crop  a  season.  For  example: 
Cucumbers  for  pickles  may  follow  peas,  and  turnips  be 
sown  among  the  cucumbers.  I  have  grown  these  crops 
by  the  acre  in  this  way  and  realized  a  full  yield  from 
each.      Melons,  either  w^ater  or  musk,  may  be  grown  on 


172  SUCCESS   IN   FARMING. 

the  pea  ground  by  leaving  spaces  for  the  hills,  or  start- 
ing them  in  pots  and  transplanting  when  the  peas  are 
past  use.  I  usually  grow  Hubbard  squashes  on  the 
early  potato  patch,  and  succeed  better  with  them  than 
when  planted  early.  In  beginning  to  dig  the  potatoes  I 
take  up  hills  where  I  want  the  squash  hills  to  be  and 
plant  the  squashes,  and  by  the  time  the  squash  vines 
get  fairly  to  running,  the  potatoes  can  all  be  dug. 

Winter  cabbage  can  follow  the  earl}^  beans,  and  late 
beans  occupy  the  spot  where  the  lettuce  and  spinach 
stood.  On  the  onion  bed  3^ou  can  grow  radishes,  and 
turnips  can  follow  the  sweet  corn.  Indeed,  by  a  little 
planning  nearl}'  the  whole  garden  spot  can  be  made  to 
grow  more  than  one  crop  a  year,  and  thus  not  onlv  the 
ground  be  made  to  pay  liberally,  but  by  the  constant 
cultivation  secured  the  growth  of  weeds  will  be  pre- 
vented. In  order  to  keep  the  land  thus  fully  occupied, 
and  so  give  the  weeds  no  chance  it  will  be  well  if  you 
have  a  vacant  spot  and  nothing  to  plant,  to  drill  it  in 
sweet  corn  or  even  held  corn  to  cut  up  and  feed  to  the  cows. 

Keep  the  fruit  garden  separate  from  the  vegetable 
garden,  and  m  it  set  out  currants,  raspberries,  rhubarb, 
grapes,  etc.  These  have  no  place  among  the  vegetablcvS 
■and  if  placed  there  will  very  likel}^  be  neglected  and 
weeds  be  allowed  to  grow  around  them  to  seed  the  re- 
mainder of  the  garden. 

The  quarter  of  an  acre  of  which  I  have  spoken  is  suf- 
ficient for  vegetables  only.  When  possible,  it  is  well  to 
drain  and  fertilize  an  acre  or  more  and  thus  have  the 
fruit  garden  and  truck  patch  adjoining  the  vegetables. 

I  would  not  plant  in  the  fruit  garden  anj'thing  larger 
than  a  quince  bush,  and  would  have  the  rows  of  rasp- 
berries, currants,  etc.,  eight  feet  apart,  so  as  to  allow  of 
(horse  cultivation. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN.  173 

With  a  plat  of  this  size,  sweet  potatoes,  sweet  corn, 
melons,  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  potatoes  in  quaatitjr 
can  be  grown. 

VARIETIES  OF  VEGETABLES. 

These  vary  so  much  with  locality  and  fancy  that  it 
would  be  folly  to  attempt  to  lay  down  any  positive  rule, 
but  I  will  mention  some  which  I  have  found  superior. 

Peas, — For  the  earliest  plant  Tom  Thumb,  Blue  Peter 
and  McLean's  Little  Gem.  The  last  is  the  best  flavored 
but  the  others  earlier  and  very  good  if  cooked  when 
young.  They  are  all  dwarfs,  needing  no  supports.  At 
the  same  time  plant  Champion  of  England.  This  is  a 
tall  variety  and  of  the  very  best  flavor. 

This  first  planting,  if  made  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be 
worked  will,  in  my  latitude,  give  the  first  picking  from 
the  20th  of  May  to  1st  of  June  according  to  the  season, 
and  will  furnish  a  succession  for  about  a  month.  A  sec- 
ond planting  early  m  April,  and  a  third  two  weeks  later 
will  keep  up  an  unbroken  succession. 

Many  persons  prefer  to  bush  tall  peas.  I  do  not,  and 
get  fair  returns  and  they  are  grown  in  large  quantities 
for  market  garden  in  the  same  way.  They  fall  over 
when  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  then  turn  up  and  grow 
two  or  three  feet  more  and  bear  good  crops.  I  find  it 
cheaper  to  grow  two  hundred  feet  of  row  without  bush- 
ing than  one  hundred  with,  and  get  more  than  a  half 
crop.* 

Dwarf   varieties   of  peas    may  be   planted  in  rows 

*I  think  difference  in  climate  must  be  taken  into  the  count 
in  this  matter.  I  am  quite  confident  that  tall  peas  in  the  warm, 
moist  climate  of  Southern  Illinois  would  not  produce  any  crop 
at  all  if  grown  as  Mr.  Brown  recommends,  but  would  simply 
mould  and  rot.  Where  a  man  takes  a  pride  in  the  looks  of  his 
garden,  I  think  he  will  bush  all  peas  that  need  it,  even  in  cli- 
mates where  they  could  be  grown  without.  r.  s.  t^ 


174  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

eighteen  inches  apart.  The  tall  peas,  if  not  bushed,  may 
be  planted  in  double  rows  two  feet  apart,  so  as  to  sup- 
port each  other.  When  bushed  the  rows  shou^ld  be  four 
feet  apart. 

Lettuce. — Plant  (Juried  Silesia  for  the  earliest,  and 
some  time  in  April  plant  Prize  Head  for  summer  use. 
This  last  named  is  the  best  I  have  ever  grown. 

Beets. — Earh^  Egyptian  for  earliest,  with  Improved 
Tilood  Turnip  for  main  crop.  All  beets  do  best  with 
early  planting. 

Beans. — Black  Wax  for  snaps,  they  are  hardy,  prolific 
tender,  of  excellent  flavor,  and  perfectly  stringless.  They 
may  be  planted  last  of  April  or  first  of  May,  and  every 
two  weeks  thereafter  till  the  first  of  August,  for  a  suc- 
cession. The  Small  Lima — also  called  Sieva  or  Butter, 
are  full}-  equal  to  the  Large  Lima  in  flavor,  are  easier  to 
shell,  three  weeks  earlier  and  twice  as  productive. 
Dreer's  Improved  Lima  is  large,  and  the  best  flavored 
I  have  ever  seen,  but  I  have  found  it  a  shy  bearer  and 
quite  late.  It  is  worthy  a  place  in  the  garden  notwith- 
standing these  faults. 

Tomato. — The  finest  I  have  ever  grown  is  the  Acme. 
It  is  perfect  in  form,  of  a  beautiful  glossy  red,  and  ripens 
all  over  and  through  at  the  same  time. 

Sweet  Corn. — I  consider  the  Early  Boynton  the  best 
extra  early  variety.  It  bears  very  close  planting,  and 
has  two  or  more  ears  to  the  stalk.  Stowell  Evergreen 
has  never  been  superceded  for  the  main  crop.  It  is 
very  productive,  of  good  flavor,  and  continues  in  good 
condition  for  several  weeks. 

Onions. — I  prefer  the  Yellow  Globe  Danvers  for  the 
family  garden.  White  Portugal  is  best  for  pickles. 
Onions  can  be  grown  from  seed  with  larger  yield  and 
finer  quality  than  from   sets.      By  early  planting  and 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN.  175 

thorough  cultivation  three  or  four  bushels  can  be  grown, 
on  a  square  rod.  i^or  very  early  onions,  small  bulbs 
may  be  planted  in  fall  or  as  early  in  spring  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked.* 

*There  is  one  i>oint  in  garden  management  Mr.  Brown  has 
not  mentioned — namely,  the  iniportance  in  planting  of  j)ress' 
ing  the  ground  tirmly  down  on  the  seed.  A  good  roller  will  do 
this,  or  when  planting  small  amounts  in  rows,  the  row  may  be 
walked  on  after  covering,  putting  one  foot  exactly  in  front  of 
the  other.  Of  course  the  amount  of  pressure  will  vary  with 
different  soils,  but  where  a  garden  is  well  drained,  and  culti- 
vated and  manured  as  it  ought  to  be,  the  soil  is  apt  to  be  very 
loose.  I  have  found  that  where  the  soil  was  firmly  pressed 
about  the  seed,  that  not  only  did  the  seed  germinate  in  half  the 
time,  but  the  young  plant  was  stronger  and  more  vigorous. 

R.  s.  T. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


STOCK  ON  THE  FAKM. 

CHOICE  OF  STOCK. 

In  stocking  the  farm  care  and  judgment  must  be  used^ 
as  has  been  indicated,  the  character  of  the  farm  con- 
sidered and  stock  selected  that  will  be  adapted  to  the 
farm  and  locality.  Whether  sheep,  or  hogs,  or  cattle 
shall  be  the  principal  stock  must  be  determined  in  this 
manner.  In  some  cases  all  three  may  be  kept;  in  more 
instances  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  make  a  specialty 
of  some  one,  though  perhaps  a  few  of  the  others  may  be 
also  kept. 

For  broken,  hilly  farms  there  is  no  stock  so  profitable 
as  the  Merino  sheep.  They  can  climb  over  the  hillsides 
and  gain  a  living  for  themselves  and  owner  on  land  that 
the  plow  could  not  turn,  and  on  which  no  reaper  could 
gather  a  crop.  Where  a  small  number  of  sheep  only  are 
kept,  and  mutton  rather  than  wool  is  the  object,  the 
larger  breeds  will  be  found  more  profitable. 

On  rich  bottom  or  prairie  land  where  corn  can  be 
largely  grown  some  of  the  larger  breeds  of  hogs,  such  as 
Poland-Chinas,  Chester  Whites,  Jersey  Reds,  will  give 
the  best  returns  for  the  feed.  On  other  farms  where 
grazing  is  more  followed  than  corn  raising,  some  of  the 
smaller,  finer-boned  breeds  will  do  well. 

In  determining  the  breed  of  cattle,  consider  the  end  in 
view.  If  you  desire  to  make  a  specialty  of  "  gilt-edged  " 
"butter,  keep  Jerseys.      If  you  desire  quantity  of  milk, 


STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  177 

the  Ayrshires  or  a  milking  strain  of  Short-horns  crossed 
on  a  native  will  meet  your  wants.  For  a  ''general  pur- 
pose" animal,  good  for  both  milk  and  beef,  the  Holsteins 
are  rapidly  coming  into  favor.  A  cross  of  Short-horn  on 
our  native  stock,  also  produces  some  of  our  most  valua- 
ble "general  purpose"  stock.* 

Grades  or  Thoroughbreds.— I  would  hardly  advise 
the  young  farmer  in  stocking  his  farm  to  begin  with 
thoroughbred  stock,  unless  he  intends  to  go  into  the 
business  of  raising  and  selling  thoroughbreds  for  breed- 
ing purposes;  and  it  is  not  ever3^one  who  can  success- 
fully do  this.  In  raising  for  milk  or  the  butcher,  good 
grades  are  sometimes  even  more  profitable  than  thor- 
oughbreds. 

But  I  would  impress  upon  the  3'oung  farmer  the  impor- 
tance of  using  thoroughbred  males  and  continually  grad- 
ing up  his  stock.  It  is  claimed  by  man}-  experienced 
farmers  that  the  ofl^spring  of  a  thoroughbred  Short- horn 
sire  on  a  native  cow  will  bring  more  mone}^  at  three 
years  old  than  a  native  will  at  four,  and  this  makes  a 
male  Short-horn  very  valuable,  as  he  can  put  his  impress 
on  a  large  amount  of  stock. 

In  grading  up,  keep  in  mind  your  end  in  view,  and 
aim  steadily  at  that  in  your  selection  of  crosses,  whether 
you  desire  increase  in  size,  perfect  form,  weight  of  flesh, 
or  milk.  Remember  that  there  is  a  constant  danger  of 
deterioration,  which  can  onl}-  be  avoided  by  care  and 

*It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  matter  of  milk  thei-e 
is  almost  as  much  diiference  in  different  families  of  the  same 
breed,  as  in  the  different  breeds.  Some  Short-horns  are  al- 
most worthless  as  milkers,  giving  an  inconsiderable  amount 
and  poor  in  quality ;  w^hile  on  the  other  hand  I  have  drank 
Short-horn  milk  that  I  could  not  tell  from  Jersey  milk,  as  it 
equalled  it  both  in  richness  and  flavor.  As  a  general  rule, 
however,  the  animal  best  adapted  for  milk  will  be  least  adapted 
ior  producing  beef,  and  vice  versa.  k.  s.  x. 


178  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

vigilance,  and  that  there  is  abundant  encouragement  for 
the  careful  breeder. 

CARE  OF  STOCK. 

If  asked  to  give  in  one  sentence  full  directions  for  the 
care  of  stock,  I  should  sa}^:  3Iake  them  comfortable. 
This  covers  all.  For  an  animal  to  be  comfortable  must 
be  well  fed,  have  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water, 
must  have  shade  during  the  heat  of  summer  and  protec- 
tion from  the  storms  of  winter;  when  stabled  they  must 
have  good  bedding  and  be  kept  clean. 

WATER    FOR  STOCK. 

A  suppl}^  of  good  water  is  necessary,  both  for  the  com- 
fort and  health  of  stock.  There  are  many  farms  on 
which  there  are  no  springs  or  permanent  streams,  and 
on  which  the  supply  Irom  wells  is  either  uncertain  or 
difficult  to  raise  on  account  of  depth. 

On  such  farms  resort  may  be  had  to  cisterns  and  ponds. 
A  cistern  may  be  located  anywhere  that  is  most  conve- 
nient for  watering  the  stock,  and  filled  with  surface  wa- 
ter or  the  drainage  of  the  soil.  They  should  never  be 
dug  in  a  run,  or  where  there  is  so  much  fall  as  to  cause 
the  soil  to  wash,  as  they  will  then  be  liable  to  be  filled 
with  mud.  But  in  any  place  w^here  there  is  sufficient 
fall  to  enable  you  to  gather  into  them  the  water  from  an 
acre,  there  will  be  no  trouble  in  keeping  them  filled. 

I  have  two  of  these  cisterns  that  have  furnished  me 
an  unfailing  supply  for  seven  years.  The  first  one  I 
filled  from  the  surface  and  allowed  the  water  to  run  in 
when  veiy  muddv,  but  found  it  soon  settled  and  became 
as  clear  as  spring  water. 

But  I  have  found  it  is  unnecessary  to  use  surface  wa- 
ter. A  few  rods  of  ordinary  draining  tile  can  be  laid, 
crossing  the  natural  flow  of  the  water  diagonally,  and  en- 
tering the  cistern  at  a  sufficient  depth  to  be  safe  from 


STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  179 

frost,  If  the  ground  is  very  level,  a  couple  of  furrows 
jiia}"  be  turned,  starting  from  the  cistern  and  diverging 
in  the  form  a  letter  y,  to  turn  the  flow  of  the  surface  wa- 
ter over  the  tile. 

By  this  arrangement  any  rain  which  makes  the  land 
too  wet  to  plow,  will  till  the  cistern,  and  the  water  being 
clear,  it  will  not  deposit  mud.  From  such  a  cistern  the 
water  is  easily  pumped,  as  the  depth  is  but  small. 

Do  not  dig  over  ten  feet  deep,  as  it  is  cheaper  to  make 
them  long  and  shallow.  A  cistern  ten  feet  deep  and  the 
same  in  diameter  will  hold  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
Ibarrels,  and  one  of  mine  of  this  size  has  but  twice  been 
dry  in  seven  years,  though  the  horses  have  been  wa- 
tered from  it  constant^,  and  in  dry  seasons  several  head 
of  stock. 

If  a  cistern  of  much  greater  capacity  than  this  is 
needed,  it  is  better  to  dig  it  oval,  as  it  is  difficult  to  turn 
an  arch  if  the  width  much  exceeds  ten  feet. 

The  cost  of  these  cisterns  will  vary  in  different  locali- 
ties and  soils.  Mine  cost  me  $30,  but  were  expensive  to 
dig,  as  I  had  to  blast  through  rock  half  the  depth.  This, 
jiowever,  saved  expense  in  walling.* 

Ponds  often  are  successful  on  tough  clay  soils.  They 
should  be  located  where  there  is  but  little  fall,  to  avoid 
their  being  filled  with  wash.  They  should  be  dug  long 
and  narrow — the  length  being  east  and  west.  All  the 
work  of  digging,  except  shaping  the  sides  and  ends,  can 
be  done  with  the  plow  and  scraper. 

As  soon  as  the  pond  is  made,  a  dense  row  of  quick- 
growing  trees  should  be  set  out  on  the  south  and  west, 

*There  are  some  tough  clay  soils  in  which  a  cistern  can  be 
dug,  the  sides  sloping  somewhat,  and  the  cement  applied  di- 
rectly to  the  clay  walls,  saving  the  expense  of  bricks  or  stones 
entirely.  In  other  soils  the  cistern  must  not  only  be  walled, 
but  the  walls  cemented  to  make  them  hold  water.        k.  s.  t. 


180  SUCCESS    IX   FARMING. 

SO  as  to  shade  it  thorouglily,  and  it  should  be  secureljr 
fenced,  the  fence  crossing  the  pond  a  few  feet  from  the 
east  end,  so  as  to  allow  the  cattle  to  drink.  This  end — 
-which  will  need  no  shade — should  be  graded  to  a  gentle 
slope  and  the  bank  be  covered  with  broken  stone  or  clean 
gravel,  this  protection  extending  into  the  pond  as  far  as 
the  cattle  are  allowed  to  go,  that  the}^  cannot  b}^  their 
tramping  make  it  muddy.* 

Such  a  pond  would  last  a  lifetime,  and  furnish  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  good  water;  but  no  one  of  the  points 
Diientioned  can  be  neglected.  A  pond  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  into  which  the  cattle  are  allowed  to  wade  and 
drop  their  dung,  and  hogs  to  wallow,  becomes  merely  a 
cesspool  of  impurities,  and  will  not  furnish  water  fit  for 
stock  of  any  kind. 

Bad  water  for  stock  causes  disease  among  them,  and 
often  tjq^hoid  fever  among  those  who  drink  their  milk. 

To  secure  an  unfailing  supply  of  good  Avater  is  often 
an  expensive  matter,  but  costs  far  less  than  the  trouble 
and  loss  in  a  single  dry  season,  when  the  cattle  have  to 
be  driven  a  mile  or  more  for  water,  and  sometimes  suffer- 
severely  from  neglect. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  CHEAP  BEEF. 

I  have  been  led  to  give  considerable  attention  to  this 
matter  from  the  fact  that  I  for  some  jenvs  fed  cattle  at 
:i  loss,  or  very  small  profit,  and  have  found  that  this  has 
been  the  experience  of  man}^  others.  I  think  if  a  care- 
ful account  was  kept,  a  majorit}^  of  those  who  attempt 
winter-feeding  of  cattle  lose  money,  and  not  one  in  ten 
really  makes  a  fair  profit.     There  are  several  reasons  for 

*There  are  many  soils  in  which  it  is  not  possible  to  make  a 
pond  hold  water.  In  any  case,  where  the  fanner  can  aff'ord  it, 
a  good  well,  with  an  unfailing  supply,  and  a  wind-pump,  by 
W'iiich  a  reservoir  can  be  kept  constantly  filled,  is  one  of  the 
Ijreatest  comforts  ever  placed  on  a  farm.  k.  s.  t» 


STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  18l 

this.  For  example,  l3eginiiiiig  to  feed  at  the  wrong  sea- 
son of  the  year,  feeding  too  heavily  at  the  start,  feeding- 
too  long,  irregular  feeding,  etc.,  etc.  I  am  confident 
that  I  can  give  advice  which  if  followed  will  result 
in  a  good  profit  in  every  case,  unless  accident  or  dis- 
ease should  occasion  loss.  I  have  been  in  correspon- 
dence for  some  years  with  a  large  cattle-feeder  of  Illi- 
nois, whose  experience  was  the  same  as  mine  until  he 
adopted  the  plan  of  spring  and  earh-  summer  feeding, 
since  which  his  profits  have  been  uniform!}'  large. 
Spring  is  the  season  of  growth  with  animals  as  well  as 
plants.  .  All  the  conditions  are  favorable ;  the  weather  is 
pleasant,  the  grass  abundant  and  succulent;  .there  are 
no  flies  to  torment  the  cattle,  and  the  water  is  pure  and 
;abundant.  In  addition,  the  long  winter  on/ dry  feed 
has  brought  the  animal  into  such  a  h3'gienic  condi- 
tion as  to  enable  it  to  assimilate  a  large  amount  of 
food,  and  I  believe  that  ordinarily  cattle  gain  more  in 
May  and  June  than  the}'  do  in  all  the  rest  of  the  sum- 
mer, and  this  often  means  the  3^ear,  for  the  majority  of 
•cattle  go  on  to  pasture  in  the  spring  lighter  than  they 
came  ofi"  of  it  the  preceding  autumn.  M}-  Illinois  friend 
claims — and  my  own  experience  confirms  it — that  cattle 
can  be  bought  the  first  of  March  and  marketed  in  June 
so  as  to  get  as  great  a  gain  and  advantage  in  June  as  if 
they  were  fed  from  the  time  grass  failed  the  previous 
fall.  To  get  this  great  gain  the  cattle  must  be  fed  long- 
enough  before  turning  on  pasture  to  begin  to  gain  rap- 
idly, and  I  recommend  that  light  grain  feeding  be  given 
through  March  and  stronger  feed  in  April.  If  3'ou  are 
feeding  large  cattle — such  as  will  sell  as  shippers,  and 
these  will  give  the  greatest  profit — I  would  keep  up  the 
grain  feed  on  pasture  till  they  are  sold;  but  if  your  cat- 
tle are  two-year  old   steers,  or  heifers,  or  dry  cows,  in- 


182  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

tended  for  a  home  market,  the  grain  may  }3e  discontin- 
ued as  soon  as  the  pastures  are  good.  There  are  several 
advantages  in  feeding  cattle  at  this  season  of  the  year: 
First,  if  you  buy  the  cattle  they  will  ordinarily  cost  less- 
the  first  of  March  than  in  the  fall,  for  by  this  time  they 
will  weigh  less,  having  got  what  the  butchers  call  the 
"gross"  out  of  them,  and  the}^  will  be  in  a  better  condi- 
tion to  begin  to  gain  at  once.  I  think  cattle  can  usually 
be  bought  as  low  the  first  of  March  as  in  the  autumn,, 
for  there  are  always  farmers  who  try  to  winter  more 
stock  than  they  have  feed  for,  and  so  must  put  them  on 
the  market;  but  even  if  a  little  more  be  paid  it  is  really 
cheaper.  Second,  by  beginning  to  feed  at  this  season, 
and  having  your  cattle  well  started  when  turned  on  grass^ 
they  will  be  ready  for  market  before  grass-fed  cattle,  and 
when  the  demand  is  greatest  of  the  entire  year,  and 
prices  usually  the  highest.  A  few  weeks  at  this  season 
will  often  make  a  dollar  a  hundred  diff'erence  in  the 
price.  Third,  the  pastures  can  be  stocked  fully  twice 
as  heavily  if  the  cattle  are  to  be  sold  in  June  as  they 
could  if  they  are  to  be  kept  on  them  all  summer,  for  this 
is  a  season  of  the  greatest  growth  for  grass,  and  by  this, 
plan  enough  profit  can  be  made  from  the  pastures  so  that 
you  can  afford  to  let  them  rest  the  balance  of  the  season, 
which  will  insure  a  growth  sufficient  to  protect  the  roots- 
and  give  3^ou  earlier  pasture  the  next  year.  To  show^ 
what  has  been  done  by  this  management,  my  Illinois 
friend  reports  that  fifty  fine  steers  fed  from  February 
17th  to  June  22d,  made  an  average  gain  of  four  hundred 
and  nineteen  pounds  each  one  spring;  and  a  net  profit, 
after  deducting  what  the  corn  was  worth,  of  over  $17  a 
head  on  sixty-four  head  another  spring.  I  have  fed  only 
on  a  small  scale,  but  have  never  failed  to  realize  a  hand- 
some profit  on  cattle  managed  in  this  way. 


HOGS  ON  THE  FARM.  183 

HORSES  AND  MULES. 

One  question  of  considerable  importance  in  making  a 
start  on  the  farm  is,  shall  you  use  mules  or  horses  for 
farm  work?  Twelve  years'  experience  in  their  use  leads 
me  to  heartily  recommend  mules  for  several  reasons : 
First,  the}'  are  much  hardier  than  horses,  especially  en- 
during heat  better;  they  are  less  liable  to  lameness  or 
disease,  and  recover  much  quicker  when  anything  is 
wrong  with  them.  Second,  as  a  rule,  thc}^  are  better 
pullers  than  horses  and  not  so  likely  to  be  spoiled  by  a 
X)Oor  driver.  Third,  they  are  much  easier  kept  and  quite 
a  saving  can  be  made  here,  as  they  require  but  little 
grain  when  not  at  work.  Fourth,  they  are  much  longer 
lived  and  will  do  several  years   more  labor  than  horses. 

I  think  it  will  pay  the  farmer  well  to  raise  his  own 
mules  and  horses,  for  he  can  do  it  cheaper  than  he  can 
buy  really  good  stock,  and  a  poor  horse  is  dear  at  any 
price.  There  are  mau}^  mules  and  colts  raised  every 
season  from  unsound  mares,  and  although  they  may 
have  a  fair  appearance  when  young,  they  break  down 
soon  under  hard  work.  The  farmer  who  keeps  strong, 
health}^  mares  and  selects  good  sires,  can  be  sure  of  rais- 
ing sound  and  valuable  horses. 


HOGS  ON  THE  FARM. 

My  experience  with  hogs  dates  back  some  forty  years^ 
at  which  time  hog  cholera  was  unknown,  and  the  loco- 
motive powers  of  the  brute  were  sufficient  to  carry  him 
to  a  distant  market.  In  1847  I  gained  my  first  expe- 
rience as  a  drover,  helping  drive  three  hundred  and 
fifty  hogs  from  Union  count}^,  Indiana,  to  Cincinnati,  a 
distance  of  over  fifty  miles.     We  made  the  trip  in  a  little 


184  SUCCESS    IN    FARMIXG. 

over  five  claj's,  and  but  one  hog  gave  out  on  the  way. 
In  December  of  the  same  3^  ear  m}'  father  drove  from  Mad- 
ison county,  Indiana,  to  the  same  market,  a  distance 
of  over  one  hundred  miles.  The  hogs  at  that  day  were 
raised  and  wintered  in  the  woods,  and  largely  fattened 
by  •'  hoggin'  off  the  corn/'  as  it  was  called,  by  which  was 
meant  turning  them  into  the  field  and  allowing  them  to 
help  themselves.  There  was  scarcely  any  effort  made  at 
that  time  to  improve  the  breed  of  hogs,  and  it  was  hardly 
desirable  to  do  so,  for  the  chief  qualifications  wanted 
were  hardiness  and  power  to  transport  his  carcass  to 
market,  and  these  they  possessed.  It  would  have  been 
next  to  an  impossibility  to  have  improved  the  breed: 
first,  for  want  of  transportation,  there  being  no  way  to 
ship  improved  stock  without  great  trouble  and  expense; 
and  second,  bieeawse-the^^  woods  were  full  of  boars,  many 
of  them  •'  elm  peelers''-  several  years  old,  who  would  jum]) 
over,  root  under,  or  l)ore  throughan}'  fence  ever  invented. 
At  the  time  I  speak  of  summer  packing  was  unknown, 
and  nearly  all  the  iVusiness  of  the  countr}^  was  done  on 
credit,  and  as  there  was  very  little  market  for  grain,  and 
then  only  when  it  was  wagoned  over  bad  roads  to  a  dis- 
tant city.  The  hog  was  the  product  of  the  farm  that 
brought  the  only  large  amount  of  cash  the  farmer  ever 
handled,  and  so  the  packing  season  ushered  in  an  era  of 
universal  prosperity,  for  the  farmer  paid  his  bills,  and 
the  blacksmith  and  shoemaker  were  then  able  to  pay 
theirs,  the  country  merchant  paid  for  his  goods  in  Cin- 
cinnati, enabling  the  wholesale  merchant  to  pay  his 
New  York  bills ;  and  so  the  dj'ing  squeal  of  the  porkei 
verified  the  words  of  the  poet: 

"  From  lowly  woe  springs  lordl}'  joy, 

From  humbler  good  diviner ; 
The  greater  life  must  aye  destroy 

And  drink  the  minor!" 


HOGS  OX  THE  FARM.  185 

I  could  tell  stories  of  hog-driving  that  would  read  like  a 
romance;  but  as  this  book  deals  with  practical  ques- 
tions of  to-day,  I  pass  on  to  the  question  of 

SUCCESSFUL  HOG-RAISING. 

First,  the  farm  on  which  hogs  are  to  be  made  the  lead- 
ing product,  must  be  one  well  adapted  to  corn,  and  this 
crop  will  not  thrive  on  cold,  Avet  land,  and  the  growing 
of  it  will  ruin  a  rolling,  washy  soil.  Our  best  corn  lands 
are.  almost  without  exception,  good  for  wheat,  and  I 
Avould  recommend  a  four-3^ears  rotation  on  a  hog  farm — 
two  years  corn,  one  A^ear  wheat,  and  one  3  ear  clover. 
This  would  give  a  clover  field  on  which  to  pasture  hogs 
in  summer  and  to  feed  them  in  the  fall,  and  this  man- 
agement would  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is 
not  my  purpose  to  recommend  any  one  breed  of  hogs 
.above  all  others,  neither  to  enumerate  the  multiplied 
breeds  now  to  be  found  in  this  countr}-.  Probably  nine- 
tentlis  of  our  Western  farmers  will  breed  Poland-Ghina, 
Berkshire,  or  some  of  their_crosses;  and  either  of  these 
breeds  is  good,  and  nian}^  practical  farmers  of  large  ex- 
perience consider  a  cross  of  the  two — using  a  Berkshire 
inale — as  the  best  and  most  profitable  butcher  hog  in 
existence.  I  have  tried  both  breeds  pure,  and  their 
crosses  for  several  years,  and  if  I  were  on  a  corn  farm 
iind  making  hogs  my  leading  interest,  I  should  always 
use  Poland-China  sows  for  breeders,  but  should,  when 
pork  was  what  I  wanted,  cross  with  the  Berkshire,  but 
would  breed  my  best  sows  to  a  Poland-China  boar,  to 
raise  brood  sows.  My  reasons  for  this  are  that  the  Berk- 
shire hog  is  more  active,  less  likely  to  break  down  Ir 
transportation  to  market,  and  certainly  not  inferior  in 
constitution  to  the  Poland-China.  The  cross  which  I 
recommend  gives  good  size,  hardiness,  early  maturity, 
and,  indeed,   about  all  the  desirable  qualities  of  both. 


186  '  SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 

breeds.  I  live  in  the  county  where  the  Poland-China 
hog  originated,  and  an  average  of  more  than  one  thous- 
and pigs  of  this  breed  are  shipped  for  breeding  purposes 
from  my  station  eveiy  year,  so  I  have  been  familiar  with 
the  breed  from  its  origin.  Some  years  ago  I  examined 
the  Assessor's  returns  in  every  county  in  Ohio,  with  a 
view  of  ascertaining  if  the  hogs  in  Butler  and  Warren 
counties — where  nearlj^  all  are  either  pure  or  high  grade 
Poland-Chinas — were  valued  higher  per  head  than  in 
other  parts  of  the  State.  I  found  that  in  but  one  county 
of  the  State  was  the  valuation  as  high,  and  that  was 
Lake  county,  where  very  few  hogs  were  kept,  and  fed 
largely  I  presume  on  milk  and  small  potatoes,  as  dairy- 
ing and  potato -growing  are  the  leading  interests  of  that 
county.  The  value  per  head  in  the  two  counties  named 
was  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  in  some  counties 
where  no  attempts  had  been  made  to  improve  the  hogs. 
The  same  j^ear  I  found  that  the  hogs  packed  in  Cincin- 
nati— which  were  largely  Poland-China — averaged  sixty 
pounds  per  head  above  those  packed  at  Chicago.  Look- 
ing upon  the  hog  as  a  machine  for  manufacturing  a  less 
bulky  and  more  valuable  article  out  of  corn,  thus  saving- 
expenses  of  transportation,  I  should  name  the  following- 
points  as  desirable:  First,  constitution;  second,  power 
to  assimilate  food;  third,  early  maturit}^  Keeping  in 
mind  these  points,  and  taking  it  for  granted  that  the 
farmer  has  good  stock,  I  will  begin  with 

THE  sow  AND  HER  PIGS. 

And  first,  I  would  recommend  mature  mothers.  I  have 
little  doubt  that  one  of  the  causes  of  disease  so  prevalent 
among  swine  is,  that  the  constitution  Avas  impaired  by 
the  almost  universal  custom  which  prevailed  for  many 
years,  of  breeding  sows  at  eight  months  old.  There  are 
many  points  in  favor  of  mature  mothers :     They  are  bet- 


HOGS  OX  THE  FARM.  IST 

ter  milkers,  and  consequent!}^  give  the  pigs  a  better  and 
quicker  start.  The}^  bring  forth  stronger  pigs,  and  are 
able  to  suckle  larger  litters  than  3^oung  sows.  They  are 
much  more  certain  to  save  their  pigs,  especiallj^  when. 
bred  for  early  spring  farrowing.  In  my  own  experience 
for  twent^^-five  years  past,  during  which  time  I  have  bred 
hundreds  of  sows,  I  estimate  the  loss  of  pigs  at  farrow- 
ing time  from  young  sow^s,  at  three  to  one  when  I  have 
bred  from  mature  sows. 

There  is  another  point  in  favor  of  allowing  the  sow  to 
mature  before  subjecting  her  to  the  tax  of  maternity,, 
wdiich  is  that  she  will  develop  much  better.  I  have  taken_ 
two  sows  from  the  same  litter  that  I  could  detect  no  dif- 
ference in,  and  bred  one  to  come  in  at  a  year  old,  and 
kept  the  other  over  till  the  next  season  without  breeding, 
and  found  the  latter  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  the 
heaviest,  and  of  much  the  finest  form. 

When  j^oung  sows  are  to  be  bred  I  would  not  couple 
before  January,  so  that  settled,  warm  weather  might  be 
expected  before  the  pigs  come,  and  the  sows  could  get 
some  green  food.  In  fact,  if  the  pigs  are  to  be  wintered 
and  not  fattened  until  eighteen  or  twenty  months  old,  I 
think  it  best  to  breed  all  sows  at  this  date,  as  the  risk 
of  loss  is  much  less  than  with  March  pigs.  If  the 
farmer  is  raising  pigs  to  sell  for  breeders,  or  intends  to 
fatten  at  from  eight  to  ten  months  old,  it  will  pay  to- 
take  the  risk  of  having  them  come  in  March.  When 
bred  always  make  a  record  of  it,  and  it  is  well  to  enter 
at  the  same  time  the  date  at  which  the  litter  is  expected. 
The  period  of  gestation  in  swine  is  one  hundred  and 
twelve  days,  and  I  have  never  known  them  to  exceed 
this  more  than  three  or  four  days,  and  rarely  to  fall 
much  below  it ;  but  as  there  are  cases  on  record  where 
young  sows  have  farrowed  in  from  one  hundred  to  one 


188 


SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 


hundred  and  six  days,  I  would  advise  that  the  sows  be 
separated  and  put  where  you  want  them  to  farrow  two 
weeks  ahead  of  date.  I  woukl  make  the  entr}^  in  this 
way:  "Spotted  sow,  Bess,  bred  Jan.  9th;  look  for  pigs 
May  1st." 

I  think  the  practice  of  allowing  the  boar  to  run  with, 
the  herd  an  abominable  one,  as  he  will  fret  and  worr}^ 
jind  is  likely  to  become  unmanageable.  Keep  him  in  a 
strong,  close  pen,  and  turn  the  sow  to  him,  and  as  soon 
iis  served  remove  her. 


PORTABLE    HOG-PEN. 

This  portable  pen,  if  for  large  sows,  should  be  made 
•six  by  seven  feet.  The  short  slope  of  roof  in  front  is  in- 
tended for  glass  when  it  is  used  for  early  pigs.  The  pen 
is  the  invention  of  Mr.  L.  N.  Bonham,  of  Oxford,  Ohio, 
who  kindly  loaned  us  the  cut.  We  have  used  these  pens 
on  our  own  farm,  and  are  much  pleased  with  them.  By 
3iailing  a  board  across  at  each  end,  allowing  it  to  project 
far  enough  for  a  handle — which  should  be  rounded  ofl' 
like  the  boards  of  a  gravel-bed — four  men  can  easily 
<'arry  one  of  these  pens,  or  it  may  be  loaded  on  a  low 
sled  when  you  wish  to  move  it  far. 

On  farms  where   hogs  are   the  leading   product  and 


HOGS  ON  THE  FARM.  189 

March  pigs  are  desired,  I  believe  it  to  be  practica- 
ble to  arrange  a  breeding  house  with  a  stove,  and 
that  in  the  long  run  it  would  pay.  1  saw  some 
years  since,  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Wm.  Greer,  an  old 
tenant  house  divided  up  into  pens  to  accommodate  a 
number  of  sows,  and  was  assured  by  him  that  the  plan 
worked  satisfactorily.  A  house  sixteen  by  twenty  feet 
could  be  arranged  thus :     Make  four  pens  five  by  six 


feet  in  size,  on  each  side  of  a  hall  four  feet  wide.  The 
stove  should  stand  in  the  center,  and  there  would  be 
room  for  a  swill  barrel  and  a  few  barrels  or  sacks  of  meal. 
I  would  make  the  ceiling  low,  so  as  to  economize  heatr 
and  the  loft  could  be  used  for  corn.  I  would  arrange  iu 
each  of  these  compartments  a  guard — such  as  is  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  Buildings — to  prevent  the  sow 
from  overlaying  the  pigs.  Make  the  floor  of  the  build- 
ing rather  low,  and  have  a  door  large  enough  for  the  sow 
to  enter,  open  from  the  outside  to  each  separate  pen. 
When  the  sows  are  to  farrow  later,  or  when  these  have 
been  turned  out  on  pasture  after  the  pigs  are  large 
enough  to  follow  the  sow,  I  prefer  the  portable  pen.    I 


190  SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 

cio  not  believe  in  hot-house  treatment  of  pigs,  and  it  is 
not  probable  that  any  litter  of  March  pigs  would  need 
fire  for  more  than  three  or  four  days,  often  less;  but 
3'oung  pigs  are  very  delicate  at  first  and  easily  chilled, 
and  where  A'aluable  sows  are  kept  this  arrangement 
might  be  profitable,  especially  as  the  partitions  could  all 
be  made  movable,  and  the  building  used  for  other  pur- 
poses eleven  months  of  the  year. 

As  few  farmers  will  find  it  profitable  to  use  fire,  the 
next  best  thing  is  to  make  the  pen  as  warm  as  possible 
without  it,  and  for  this  purpose  corn  fodder  is  excellent. 
A  single  crack,  half  an  inch  wide,  on  the  windward  side 
of  a  hog-house  in  a  blasting  March  day,  may  admit 
enough  cold  to  chill  to  death  a  pig  just  born,  but  by  set- 
ting a  few  bundles  of  corn  fodder  against  the  outside, 
and  securing  them  in  place  by  putting  some  rails  against 
them,  every  breath  of  wind  can  be  kept  out. 

Next  to  neglect  in  providing  a  suitable  place  for  the 
sow  to  bring  forth  her  j^oung,  injudicious  feeding  is  the 
_gTeatest  cause  of  loss.  The  sow  will  be  shut  up  where 
she  cannot  exercise,  perhaps  two  or  three  weeks  before 
farrowing,  and  fed  on  dry  corn,  and  when  she  brings 
forth,  the  same  heavy  feed  is  continued.  The  result 
often  is  that  fever  ensues,  the  sow  loses  her  appetite,  her 
milk  dries  up  and  the  pigs  starve  to  death.  Again,  the 
want  of  exercise  and  the  dry,  rich  food  causes  constipa- 
tion, and  the  sow  becomes  ravenous  and  eats  up  her 
litter.  From  the  day  the  sow  is  shut  up  give  a  varied 
diet :  wheat  bran,  potatoes  or  some  other  roots,  charcoal, 
rotten  wood,  and  grass  if  possible,  or  bright  clover  hay, 
or  corn  fodder,  'and  for  some  days  after  farrowing,  feed 
lightly  and  very  little  corn.  I  wish  to  emphasize  this 
last  sentence. 

Young  pigs  need  exercise,  and  thousands  die  every 


HOGS  ON  THE  FARM.  191 

year  before  they  are  a  month  old  from  being  kept  in 
close  pens.  They  get  too  fat  and  begin  to  wheeze  or 
cough,  and  take  the  thumps  and  die.  The  sow  should, 
if  possible,  be  turned  out  in  a  pasture  lot  and  the  pigs 
allowed  to  follow  her  by  the  time  they  are  two  weeks 
old.  The  secret  of  a  profitable  hog  is  to  keep  it  thrifty 
and  growing  from  the  start,  and  as  soon  as  you  notice 
the  pigs  begin  to  eat  corn,  provide  a  pen  which  the 
mother  cannot  enter,  and  feed  soaked  corn  and  slop  to 
them,  taking  pains  to  feed  only  what  they  will  eat  clean. 
If  3'ou  wish  to  breed  the  sows  for  a  second  litter,  you 
will  be  able  to  wean  the  pigs  much  younger  for  thus 
teaching  them  to  eat  early.  It  is  quite  an  expense  to 
keep  a  large  sow  a  year,  and  we  have  found  it  profitable 
to  breed  twice  a  year.  With  proper  care,  there  is  no 
trouble  in  keeping  fall  pigs  thrifty  and  growing  all  win- 
ter, and  thej^  may  be  marketed  in  spring  for  pig  pork,  or 
pastured  and  fattened  in  the  fall.  September  pigs  well 
cared  for  will  give  as  much  profit  as  spring  pigs,  and 
can  be  in  good  condition  for  market  and  should  weigh 
two  hundred  pounds  by  the  May  following. 

One  great  cause  of  unthrifty  hogs,  and  a  potent  cause 
of  the  diseases  which  have  caused  such  losses  to  hog- 
breeders,  is  the  continual  feeding  of  a  concentrated, 
heating,  fat-producing  diet ;  and  to  keep  a  hog  in  health 
he  requires  some  bulky  food.  This  fact  is  what  makes 
clover  so  valuable  to  the  pork-producer,  for  clover  is  worth 
much  more  than  the  weight  of  pork  it  will  produce,  for 
a  hog  that  has  pastured  on  it  through  the  summer  has 
built  up  bone  and  muscle  and  had  his  stomach  distend- 
ed, and  the  system  thoroughly  prepared  for  assimilating 
food,  and  a  very  rapid  gain  when  corn-feeding  begins. 
Pasture  and  green  food  are  of  such  importance  that  we 
would  recommend  a  rye  field  for  early  pasturing,  unless 


192  SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 

you  have  early  blue  grass,  and  an  abundant  supply  of 
pumpkins  for  fall  feeding,  and  have  no  doubt  that  the 
risk  of  loss  by  disease  would  be  lessened  and  the  cost  of 
pork  reduced  a  cent  or  more  a  pound  b^^  this  manage- 
ment. Experiments  in  the  use  of  clover  were  made  by  the 
editor  of  the  Live  Stock  Journal  with  the  Ibllowino-  re- 
suit :  A  litter  of  six  pigs  were  taken  at  weaning  time  and 
divided  into  two  lots.  One  was  fed  on  corn-meal  and 
w^ater  alone,  all  they  would  eat;  the  other  lot  on  t he- 
same  mixed  with  clover  cut  fine.  The  lot  whose  feed 
was  mixed  with  clover  kept  a  good  appetite  all  the- 
time,  w^hile  the  other  lot  were  frequentty  "off  their  feed.''^ 
At  the  end  of  five  months  those  fed  on  meal  alone 
weighed  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each,  and  those- 
fed  on  meal  and  clover  two  hundred  and  ten  pounds 
each.  To  further  test  the  matter,  the  same  gentleman 
put  up  in  winter  two  lots  of  hogs  averaging  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  each,  and  fed  corn-meal  slop  to  one  lot^ 
and  the  same  mixed  with  cut  clover  ha}-  to  the  other. 
The  experiment  continued  one  hundred  and  twentA" 
days,  when  the  lot  fed  on  meal  were  found  to  have  gained 
<me  hundred  and  ten  pounds  each,  and  the  other  lot  one 
hundred  and  forty-three  pounds  each. 

In  pasturing  clover,  it  is  best  not  to  turn  on  it  until 
it  begins  to  blossom,  for  we  want  a  full  development  of 
the  plant,  both  for  the  benefit  of  the  stock  and  the  land. 
The  roots  of  the  clover  can  never  reach  down  into  the 
subsoil  if  the  top  is  not  allowed  to  develop.  We  advise 
that  fattening  begin  earl}^  Numberless  experiments 
have  settled  the  question  that  a  given  amount  of  food 
will  make  double  the  amount  of  gain  in  the  mild,  pleas- 
ant weather  of  autumn  than  it  will  amid  the  cold  and 
snow  of  December.  If,  as  we  recommend,  you  feed  on  a 
clover  sod,  the  cattle  must  be  kept  out,   particularly  if 


HOGS  OX  THE  FARM.  193 

you  feed  cut  up  corn  at  first.  We  litive  known  eaotle 
killed  hy  eating  the  ends  of  husk  which  the  hogs  drop 
after  chewing.  We  would,  during  the  first  few  weeks  of 
feeding,  try  to  get  the  hogs  to  eat  all  the  bulky  food 
possible,  and  this  will  be  easy  if  3^ou  do  not  give  too 
much  corn.  Keep  a  supply  of  salt,  and  ashes,  or  char- 
coal where  they  can  have  access  to  it  at  all  times.  Feed 
<:)n  a  new  spot  ever}'  day,  so  as  to  enrich  as  much  of  the 
field  as  possible.  The  best  crib  to  feed  from  is  an  old 
wagon,  and  one  which  will  last  for  years  can  often  be 
bought  at  a  sale  for  a  few  dollars. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  ascertain  how 
much  pork  can  be  made  from  a  bushel  of  corn.  We 
have,  before  us  the  results  of  several  of  these  experiments^ 
showing  from  nine  and  three-fourths  to  twelve  pounds. 
One  large  lot.  fed  for  forty-three  davs,  made  an  average 
of  ten  pounds  for  each  bushel  of  corn,  and  we  are  in- 
clined to  believe  that  it  will  require  good  hogs  and  good 
w^eather  and  the  best  of  care  to  give  this  result.  With- 
out all  these  points  the  average  Avill  be  much  less. 

An  important  question  is  whether  to  fatten  at  nine  or 
•ten  months  old.  The  farmer  must  determine  for  him- 
self which  plan  to  adopt.  We  believe  that  cheaper 
pork  can  be  made  from  the  young  hog.  The  risk  of  dis- 
ease is  of  course  much  reduced,  and  there  is  a  quicker 
return  for  the  capital  invested.  It  is  easy,  with  good 
stock,  to  make  an  average  weight  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  at  nine  months,  and  the  same  hogs,  if  kept  ten 
or  twelve  months  longer,  would  probably  not  weigh  over 
four  hundred  pounds.  Where  pigs  are  to  be  fattened  at 
this  age,  we  would  recommend  that  they  be  allowed  to 
run  on  grass  and  fed  enough  to  keep  them  gaining  rap- 
idly till  seven  months  old,  and  then  shut  up  and  fed  all^ 
they  will  eat  till  read}-  for  market. 

13 


194  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

WINTERING  HOGS. 

There  are  a  few  simple  rules  in  wintering  hogs,  the 
observance  or  neglect  of  which  will  make  all  the  difference 
between  a  thrifty  hog  that  will  gain  regularly  all  winter, 
and  a  stunted,  enfeeblad  one  that  will  fall  an  easy  prey  to 
disease.  These  rules  are:  First,  not  too  many  hogs  to- 
gether. Second,  each  lot  to  be  composed  of  hogs  as 
nearly  the  same  size  as  possible.  Third,  a  dry,  warm, 
clean  bed.  Fourth,  some  variety  in  diet,  and  for  fall 
pigs  warm  drink.  We  have  often  seen  on  a  farm  forty 
or  lifty  hogs  of  all  sizes,  including  half  dozen  sows  two 
or  three  3^ears  old,  twenty  or  thirty  spring  pigs,  and  a 
dozen  or  more  fall  pigs.  On  a  sharp,  frosty  morning, 
when  called  up  to  be  fed,  these  small  pigs  w^ll  come  out 
steaming  as  though  just  out  of  a  warm  bath,  and  are 
almost  sure  to  take  cold ;  besides,  they  are  fought  and 
driven  off  so  that  they  cannot  get  half  their  share  of 
food,  and  if  they  live  through  the  winter  at  all — which  is 
doubtful — they  will  gain  little  if  any  in  weight.  We 
like  corn  fodder  for  a  bed  for  hogs  much  better  than 
straw,  and  find  that  the}'  eat  all  the  blades,  thus  supply- 
ing themselves  with  the  bulky  food  needed. 

When  cattle  are  fed  for  beef  during  the  winter,  and 
there  are  stock  hogs  to  follow  them,  we  would  advise 
heavy  feeding  of  the  cattle  with  whole  corn,  as  the  hogs 
will  eat  all  that  passes  the  cattle  undigested,  and  thrive 
well  on  it. 

COOKING  FOOD  FOR  HOGS. 

Will  it  pay  to  cook  feed  for  hogs?  is  a  question  often 
asked,  and  often  answered  in  the  negative  at  a  heavy  ex- 
pense for  apparatus  bought.  I  advocated  it  ardently 
when  a  much  3'ounger  man  than  I  am  now,  and  can  show 
stowed  away  as  useless  lumber,  several  double,  back-ac- 
tion patent  steamers  and  cookers.     I  can  sa}'  emphati- 


HOGS  ON  THE  FAUM.  190 

(•ally  that  /  never  could  make  it  pay.  Besides,  I  know 
of  scores  of  farmei's  wlio  began  cooking  feed  for  their 
hogs  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  yet  I  do  not  know 
of  one  of  them  who  has  kept  it  up  more  than  a  year  or 
two  at  the  farthest.  I  do  not  deny  that  cooked  food  is 
better  than  raw,  but  I  am  sure  that  it  is  not  enough  bet- 
ter to  pay  for  the  trouble  and  expense  with  the  amount 
of  hogs  kept  on  the  ordinary  farm.  Further,  we  say  that 
ground  food  is  worth  just  as  much  soured  as  cooked,  and 
there  is  very  little  trouble  or  expense  to  do  this  at  any  sea- 
son of  the  3'ear.  In  the  summer  3'ou  must  guard  against 
excessive  acidty,  and  in  the  winter  against  freezing ;  and 
for  either  you  will  need  two  barrels.  A  swill  barrel  in 
summer  that  stands  for  days  without  emptying,  often  be- 
comes as  sour  as  vinegar,  but  by  having  two  barrels,  anci 
emptying  one  every  other  day,  the  excess  of  acidity  can 
be  avoided.  In  the  winter,  fermentation  is  slower,  and 
two  barrels  are  needed,  so  as  to  give  more  time.  For 
winter,  the  barrels  must  be  packed  in  chy  sawdust  to 
prevent  freezing,  and  if  not  under  a  roof,  there  should  be 
a  sloping  lid,  hung  with  a  hinge,  to  close  so  as  to  keep 
the  sawdust  dry.  Have  the  box  eight  inches  wider  ev- 
ery way  than  the  barrel.  If  forty-gallon  barrels  are  used, 
the  box  will  need  to  be  about  five  and  a  half  by  three 
and  a  half  feet,  and  will  take,  without  a  lid,  about  fift}^ 
feet  of  lumber.  vSet  the  barrels  in  the  box  quite  close 
to  each  other,  and  fill  around  them  with  dry  sawdust, 
cover  th€  top  with  two  thicknesses  of  old  carpet,  and 
]30ur  into  each  a  tea-kettleful  of  boiling  water  each 
da}',  and  the  winter  must  be  severe  if  an}^  ice  forms. 
Let  one  barrel  sour  while  you  are  using  from  the  other, 
and  you  need  never  be  wanting  warm  slop,  equal  in 
every  respect  to  that  which  is  cooked. 

There  is  an  opinion  prevalent  that  corn  and  hog  pro- 


196  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMIXCr. 

duction  is  exhaustive  to  the  soil.  If  the  rotation  and' 
plan  of  feeding  recommended  in  this  chapter  is  followedr 
it  certainly  is  not.  The  hog  is  also  a  valuable  manure- 
maker  if  rightly  managed.  A  half  score  of  active  young; 
hogs  in  such  a  hog-house  as  is  illustrated  in  the  chapter 
on  farm  buildings,  if  furnished  in  the  outside  floored 
pen  with  all  the  straAV  they  will  work  up,  will  half  pay 
for  their  feed  in  manure;  and  when  there  is  an  old 
straw  stack  or  a  few  tons  of  corn  butts  to  be  worked, 
over  into  manure,  a  hog  will  more  than  pay  for  his  food^ 

DISEASES  OF  HOGS. 

I  wish  I  could  offer  an  infallible  preventive,  or  a  spe- 
cific remedy  for  the  epidemic  diseases  which  have  occa- 
sioned such  loss  to  the  farmers  of  the  West.  Expe- 
rience proves,  however,  that  with  the  best  of  care  and 
under  the  most  careful  sanitary  regulations,  it  will  oc- 
casionally break  out  in  so  malignant  a  form  as  to  almost 
annihilate  the  hogs  of  a  farm  or  neighborhood.  I  have 
never  lost  a  hog  from  epidemic  disease,  and  a  few  years 
ago  prided  myself  that  my  own  good  management  was 
the  cause  of  my  exemption.  I  have  seen,  however,  on^ 
the  farms  of  neighbors,  where  fine  breeding  stock  was 
kept,  and  far  better  sanitary  precautions  enforced  than 
on  my  own,  entire  herds  carried  off  in  a  few  da^^s.  In 
one  case  this  could  be  traced  to  the  infection  being 
brought  by  hogs  from  a  neighboring  farm  that  were  run- 
ning at  large,  contrary  to  law.  The  law  against  stock 
running  at  large  ought  to  be  rigidly  enforced  against 
hogs,  and  if  this  is  done,  one  source  of  danger  will  be 
avoided.  One  cannot  too  carefully  attend  to  all  the 
points  which  will  help  keep  his  hogs  healthy,  and  if  this- 
is  done  the  risk  of  loss  will  be  greatly  reduced. 


DAIRYING.  197 

DAIRYING. 

In  many  localities,  and  especially  where  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  land  is  unsuited  to  grain,  dairying  is  aa 
important  interest.  It  has  also  this  advantage ;  that  it 
does  not,  like  grain  croping,  exhaust  the  soil,  and  it 
gives  a  regular  cash  income.  It  comes  in  well  in  a  sys- 
tem of  mixed  farming,  as  the  cows  will  consume  the 
<iorn  fodder,  hay  and  straw,  and  furnish  manure  to  ap- 
ply to  the  wheat  fields.  Doubtless  the  most  profitable 
'disposition  of  dairy  products  is  te  sell  the  milk  to  con- 
sumers by  the  quart,  but  as  few  farmers  can  own  a  milk 
Toute  I  shall  not  speak  of  this  further.  The  least 
troublesome  way  is  to  sell  to  the  factories,  but  there  are 
large  sections  where  there  are  no  factories.  What  I 
shall  say  in  this  chapter,  therefore,  will  apply  more  di- 
rectly to  the  farm  dairy  where  the  profits  are  to  come 
from  butter,  and  my  own  experience  has  been  with  a 
dairy  of  this  kind.  I  wish  to  say  in  the  beginning  that 
there  can  be  nothing  made  from  a  butter  dairy  if  a 
-common  article  is  made  and  sold  at  the  usual  market 
price;  and  unless  sure  you  can  make  an  extra  good 
:article,  and  3'ou  can  get  a  j^early  contract  for  it  at  a 
remunerative  price,  you  would  better  let  the  calves  run 
with  your  cows  and  save  expense  and  labor. 

SELECTION  OP  DAIRY  STOCK. 

From  my  own  experience  in  bujdng  cows  I  would  ad- 
vise that  3^ou  buy  thrifty  young  cows  that  can  be  had  at 
ii  moderate  price,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  buy  cows 
that  are  highly  recommended  and  for  which  fancy  prices 
lire  asked.  Buy  your  cows  largely  with  reference  to  get- 
ting your  money  back  in  beef,  if  they  prove  poor  milkers 
or  unprofitable  for  butter;  and  then  if  they  do  not  suit 
jouj  keep  them  but  a  single  season.      I  know  this   13 


108  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

contrary  to  the  advice  usually  given,  but  as  1  look  back- 
over  my  own  experience,  I  have  rarely  bought  a  cow  at  a 
high  price  that  has  given  satisfaction.  If  up  to  the 
standard  for  milk  or  butter,  she  often  had  some  little  ac- 
complishment which  her  owner  forgot  to  mention^  such 
as  an  ugly  temper,  a  supreme  indifference  to  fences,  or  a 
too  free  use  of  her  horns;  and  often  she  failed  in  the 
first  named  qualities.  During  the  time  I  ran  a  butter 
dairy,  out  of  some  forty  cows  that  I  bought,  the  best 
two  and  the  onl}'  ones  I  kept  when  I  quit  making  butter 
for  sale,  cost  me  $30.00  each.  I  bought  among  this 
number  several  cows,  the  owners  of  which  gave  them  a 
great  reputation,  paying  fifty  dollars  and  upward  for 
them;  but  I  failed  to  make  the  transaction  profitable  in 
any  instance.  I  see  by  looking  at  my  account  book, 
that  in  the  summer  of  1877  I  sold  for  $156.00  four  cows, 
which  I  had  milked  all  summer,  and  for  $122.00  replaced 
them  with  as  many  that  were  fresh.  1  do  not  wish  to 
l)e  understood  as  recommending  the  keeping  of  poor  or 
ordinary  cows,  for  the  diff'erence  in  the  cost  of  keeping  a 
cow  that  will  make  seven  pounds  of  butter  a  week  for 
the  best  six  months  of  the  year,  and  one  that  will  make- 
but  four,  is  small;  but  at  thirty  cents  a  pound  there 
would  be  over  twenty-three  dollars  in  favor  of  the 
best  cow.  I  do  believe,  however,  that  it  will  be  cheaper 
and  more  satisfactory  to  buy  good  average  cows  at 
moderate  prices,  hold  on  to  the  extra  good  ones  and  dis- 
pose of  the  others  and  try  again,  than  to  pay  extrava- 
gant prices,  and  then  often  be  disappointed.  I  should  - 
advise  that  you  breed  to  a  male  of  a  good  milking  family 
and  raise  the  heifer  calves,  and  your  eftbrts  should  be 
continually  to  grade  up  and  improve  your  stock. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  GOOD  BUTTEK. 

I  have  said  there  is  no  profit  in  a  common  or  poor  arti- 


DAIRYING.  199 

cle  of  butter.  Three  things  are  necessary  to  make  a 
first  class  article.  Good  food,  cleanliness,  and  a  siiita- 
])le  and  uniform  temperature  for  the  milk.  Taking 
these  up  in  the  order  named,  I  recommend  mixed 
grasses  for  pasture,  and  the  more  varieties  the  better. 
If  you  can  have  blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  timothy,  red 
top,  and  red  and  white  clover  in  the  pasture,  it  will  be 
better  than  any  one  or  two  of  them.  As  we  are  subject 
to  drought  and  consequent  short  pastures,  the  dairy- 
man should  always  grow  some  soiling  crops  to  use  when 
needed,  and  Stowell  or  mammoth  sweet  corn  is  perhaps 
the  best,  although  Blount's  prolific  will  yield  more  feed 
to  the  acre,  and  common  field  corn  will  answer  for 
winter.  I  have  found  nothing  to  equal  bran  and  corn 
meal  mixed,  weight  for  weight,  which  will  give  about 
two  bulks  of  bran  to  one  of  corn  meal. 

I  like  in  connection  with  this  to  feed  a  little  whole 
corn,  as  the  cows  are  exceedingly  fond  of  it  and  it  gives 
variety.  For  rough  feed  I  find  bright  corn-fodder  excel- 
lent, and  cheaper  than  any  other;  and  I  alwa3^s  feed  it 
as  long  as  it  lasts,  which,  with  me,  is  usually  all  winter. 
Clover  hay,  if  bright  and  sweet,  is  perhaps  better,  but 
not  so  cheap.  I  see  by  reference  to  my  account  book, 
that  when  I  was  milking  eight  cows  in  winter,  I  fed  per 
week,  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  the  bran  and 
jneal  mixed,  three  bushels  of  small  corn,  and  a  half  ton 
of  fodder,  which  was  from  corn  cut  up  at  the  ground, 
and  Avas  one  third  waste.  This  made,  calling  the  corn 
fifty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel,  a  daily  ration  of  twenty- 
one  pounds  for  each  cow ;  and  as  corn  at  that  time  was 
25  cents  a  bushel,  and  bran  $9  a  ton,  and  the  fodder  did 
not  cost  more  than  $3  a  ton;  so  the  gross  cost  of  keep- 
ing my  cows  was  small.  The  corn  and  bran  averaged 
just  nine  pounds  to  a  cow,  per  da}',  costing,  allowing  a 


200  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

little  for  draj'ing  the  corn  to  and  from  the  mill,  5  cents 
a  day  for  each  cow,  while  the  cost  of  fodder  was  a  little 
less  than  3  cents  a  day  per  head.  I  have  found  by  re- 
peated experiments  that  this  ration,  nine  pounds  of  meal 
and  grain,  and  twelve  net  of  corn  fodder  or  good  clover 
hay,  is  a  full  ration  for  an  averaged  sized  cow,  and  will 
keep  up  a  full  flow  of  milk  or  fatten  her  if  dry.  Every 
dairy-man  should  \i\y  in  liis  stock  of  bran  in  the  sum- 
mer. I  have  never  failed  to  buy  at  the  lowest  figures  in 
July  or  August.  The  demand  is  less  then  and  the 
Millers  want  to  clean  their  bins  so  as  to  be  read}^  for  the 
new  crop  of  wheat,  and  there  can  be  enough  saved  in 
buying  then  to  justify  borrowing  monej"  at  a  high  per 
cent.,  if  necessary. 

The  second  point  in  making  good  butter,  "  cleanli- 
ness," needs  no  argument.  It  must  begin  in  the  stable 
and  include  the  milker  and  all  the  vessels  used  about 
the  milk,  and  its  surroundings. 

The  third  point,  ••temperature/'  is  as  important  as 
any,  for  good  butter  cannot  be  made  in  hot  weather 
without  this  can  be  controlled.  There  aretwowa3^s;  one 
by  an  unlimited  supply  of  cold  spring  or  well  water, 
and  the  other  by  ice.  I  should  always  prefer  the  former 
if  it  could  be  had.  Whichever  way  the  milk  is  to  be 
cooled,  I  advise  deep  setting.  I  have  practised  it  for 
six  years,  aud  could  not  be  induced  to  go  back  to  th6 
old  plan  of  shallow  jars.  I  use  cans  eight  inches  in 
diameter  and  twenty  inches  deep.  If  we  cool  with  water 
we  sink  to  tlie  top  in  a  box  through  which  water  from  a 
spring  flows,  or  if  it  must  be  pumped,  we  arrange  it  so 
as  to  draw  off  the  water  when  the  milk  is  partially  cool- 
ed, and  then  pump  a  fresh  supply.  For  ice,  use  a  large 
chest  with  side  doors  to  slide  in  the  cans,  and  a  slatted 
floor  above  on  which  to  lay  the  ice,  through  a  door  In 


DAIRYING.  201 

the  top.  This  upper  space  shouhl  be  over  a  foot  deep, 
so  that  there  will  be  room  to  set  meat,  butter,  etc.  on  the 
cakes  of  ice.  In  the  hottest  weather  3^ou  will  need  to 
set  a  cake  of  ice  on  edge  between  the  cans  below  as  well 
as  to  have  it  melting  and  dripping  over  the  cans  from 
-above.  Managed  in  this  way  I  have  marketed  as  solid, 
fragrant  butter  in  dog-days  as  in  May  or  October.  My 
Urst  knowledge  of  the  plan  of  deep  setting  of  milk  was 
gained  from  a  dairy-man  at  Elgin,  Illinois,  who  kept 
sixty  cows,  and  sold  the  milk  to  a  factory  which  did  not 
take  the  Sunday  milking.  By  putting  this  milk  in  deep 
■cans  and  sinking  it  in  a  spring,  he  kept  it  sweet  all  the 
week,  and  raised  his  calves  on  it.  Two  articles  not 
usually  found  in  the  dairy  I  would  recommend;  a  test 
glass  and  milking  tubes.  The  first  is  a  glass  arranged 
with  a  graduated  scale,  so  that  by  filling  it  to  the  top 
and  setting  it  away  for  the  cream  to  raise,  you  can  tell 
exactly  the  per  cent,  of  cream.  The  milking  tubes  I 
would  not  use  except  in  case  of  sore  teats  or  an  accident 
of  some  kind.  A  cow  will  sometimes  get  a  teat  cut  or 
badly  scratched  with  briars,  so  that  every  time  you  milk 
the  sore  will  be  opened,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  t© 
heal  it.  By  the  use  of  the  tubes  you  can  draw  off  the 
mi'lk  and  the  teat  soon  gets  well.  I  always  keep  in  my 
stable  something  to  use  on  the  teats  at  the  first  sign  of 
cracking.  Glycerine  is  good,  and  I  have  recommended 
it  for  many  years ;  but  I  have  recently  used  vaseline 
and  find  it  much  better.  I  believe  that  if  a  little  of  this 
is  applied  at  the  first  appearance  of  roughness,  that  it 
will  be  found  a  certain  preventative,  and  as  there  are 
many  cows  that  sufl'er  both  spring  and  fall,  for  weeks, 
with  cracked  teats  so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
milk  them,  this  remedy  should  be  generally  known. 
Although  not  connected  with  dairying,  I  will  say  here 


202  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMIXG. 

that  I  have  found  Neatsfoot  oil  as  useful  in  tlie  horse 
stable  as  vaseline  for  cows.  If  the  collars  are  kept  clean 
and  a  little  of  this  oil  rubbed  on  them  every  day,  and 
at  the  first  appearance  of  galling  it  is  applied  to  the 
shoulders  or  sides  of  the  horses,  I  think  that  they 
will  never  be  disabled  from  this  cause. 

The  arrangement  of  the  cow  stable  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  dairy-man.  First  of  all  it  should  be  so 
arranged  that  you  can  keep  the  cows  clean,  and  I  have 
never  seen  this  done  except  wdiere  there  was  a  manure 
ditch.  The  floor  on  wdiich  the  cows  stand  should  be  not 
more  than  five  and  a  half  feet  long;  considerably  less  if 
the  cows  are  confined  in  stanchions.  The  manure  ditcli 
should  be  eight  inches  deep  and  not  more  than  thirty 
inches  wide,  for  you  want  it  so  that  you  can  easily  step 
across  it.  You  can  keep  the  cows  as  clean,  easil}^,  by 
having  the  floor  on  which  they  stand  raised  eight  or  ten 
inches,  but  the  manure  will  be  scattered  and  the  urine 
flow  back,  so  that  you  are  almost  certain  to  soil  your 
boots  if  managed  in  this  way;  but  with  the  manuie 
ditch  you  always  know  where  to  step,  and  will  rarely 
carry  the  odor  of  the  stable  awa}'  with  you. 

This  manure  ditch  should  be  made  water  tight,  and 
I  would  advise  that  the  sides  be  made  of  two  inch  oak 
plank  not  less  than  a  foot  wide;  fill  the  bottom  witli 
tough  clay,  pounded  in,  or  if  you  cannot  get  clay  suit- 
able, use  coarse  gravel  and  then  a  coat  of  cement;  but 
on  top  of  the  cla}'  or  cement  la}^  a  floor  of  good  inch 
boards. 

I  have  never  found  any  bedding  that  suited  me  as 
well  as  sawdust;  it  keeps  the  cows  clean  and  takes  up 
the  liquid  better  than  any  other  material.  I  do  not 
make  stalls  in  the  cow  stable  but  allow  each  cow  four 
feet  of  space,  which  I  find  ample,  and  make  a  short  par- 


DAIRYING.  203^ 

tition  to  keep  them  from  trying  to  get  eacn  others  feecL 
Two  feet  is  as  far  back  as  it  need  extend,  and  then  it  is 
not  in  the  way  in  milking.  I  have  tried  several  kinds 
of  ties,  and  prefer  the  ring  and  snap  to  all  others.  By 
this  I  mean  that  we  tie  a  strong  piece  of  rope  around 
each  cows  horns,  with  a  ring  on  the  rope,  and  leave  it 
there  permanently.  We  then  have  a  short  rope,  not 
over  two  feet,  tied  securely  in  front,  with  a  strong  snap 
on  it.  The  manger  is  wide  enough  so  that  we  walk 
through  it  in  front  of  the  cows  in  t^ing  or  untying- 
them,  and  it  is  the  work  of  a  moment  to  fasten  or  loosen 
a  long  row  of  cattle.  If  I  was  keeping  a  large  dairy  I 
would  arrange  the  stable  so  that  T  could  drive  through 
with  a  w^agon  to  remove  the  manure,  having  the  manure 
ditches  far  enough  apart  to  let  the  w^agon  between  them ; 
but  where  a  few  cows  are  kept  it  can  be  wheeled  out. 

An  important  factor  in  the  profits  of  the  butter  dairjr 
is  the  skim-milk,  and  how  to  make  the  most  from  it^ 
If  the  farmer  is  raising  thoroughbred  pigs  to  sell  for 
breeders,  I  think  he  will  find  it  more  profitable  to  feed  it 
to  them,  as  no  other  food  gives  so  good  a  start  or  makes 
such  showy  pigs;  but  by  judicious  management  as  good 
calves  can  be  raised  on  skim-milk  as  b}'  letting  them 
suck  the  cow.  To  do  this  it  will  be  necessary,  to  add  ta 
the  milk  enough  oil  meal  or  flaxseed  to  make  up  the  loss 
of  the  cream.  Caution  should  be  exercised  in  changing 
from  new  to  skim-milk,  for  the  calf  should  always  be  fed 
on  new  milk  for  a  few  days,  or  until  you  can  see  it  begin 
to  grow.  Begin  by  adding  to  the  milk  a  tablespoonful 
of  the  seed,  steeped  in  hot  water,  or  double  the  amount 
of  the  meal,  and  increase  graduall}^  At  five  weeks  old 
begin  to  feed  the  calf  shelled  corn,  and  as  soon  as  it  will 
eat  a  half  pint  at  a  feed  jou  can  decrease  the  flaxseed  or 
meal.     If  3^ou  feed  regularh'  you  can  make  the  calf  fit 


:204  SUCCESS  in  fakming. 

for  veal  in  this  way  and  grow  a  healthy,  well  developed 
animal. 

I  have  often  found  it  more  profitable  to  milk  a  cow  for 
two,  and  sometimes  even  three  years,  without  breeding. 
There  are  many  cows  that  will,  if  well  fed  and  kept  from 
breeding,  give  a  profitable  flow  of  milk  for  a  long  time, 
iind  the  milk  will  be  richer  the  second  year  after  calving 
than  it  was  the  first.  This  is  an  important  fact  to  the 
man  who  keeps  but  one  cow,  as  if  bred  every  year  she 
must  go  dry  several  weeks. 

As  the  proof  of  the  value  of  a  good  cow  I  will  close 
this  chapter  with  a  statement  of  an  account  which  a 
friend  of  mine  kept  with  his  cows  for  nine  years..  But 
one  cow  was  kept  at  a  time  but  he  bought. and  sold  so 
that  several  difterent  cows  are  included  in  the  account. 
The  cow  was  charged  $2.50  per  month  for  pasture,  and 
market  price  for  hay,  bran  and  meal  consumed.  She 
was  credited  with  milk  and  butter  sold  and  the  market 
price  for  milk  and  butter  consumed  in  the  family,  the 
same  as  if  it  had  been  sold.  The  account  kept  with 
this  cow  for  one  year  is  as  follows: 

Cow.  Dr, 

Six  months  pasture  at  .$2.50  per  month, $15.00. 

Hay,  bran,  etc., 30.00. 

Total, $45.00. 

Cr. 

Milk    sold, .$20.00. 

Butter  sold   and  used, 48.00. 

Four  quarts  of  milk  used  j^er  day, 55.00. 

Total, $123.00. 

Deduct  cost  of  keeping, ^ 45.00. 

Xeaves  profit, $78.00. 


SHEEP    FARMING.  205 

Three  years  out  of  the  nine  the  cow  yielded  a  profit  of 
over  $100  after  paying  for  her  keeping.  It  is  perhaps 
needless  to  add  that  the  cow  was  well  fed  and  cared  for 
in  every  respect. 

In  1878  I  milked  eight  cows  and  sold  the  butter  at  28 
cents,  and  my  account  with  the  cows  stands  as  follows : 
Account  with  dairy.  Cr. 

778  pounds  of  butter  sold, $217.84.. 

One  calf  sold, . 7.80. 

Milk  sold, 10.00. 

Three  calves  raised, 59.00.. 

Profit  on  cows  sold, 16.00. 

Total, .$301.64.. 

In  addition  to  what  was  sold  a  family  of  nine  persons 
were  supplied  w^ith  milk,  butter  and  cream,  and  this, 
with  what  milk  was  fed  to  the  pigs  would,  I  think,  pay 
for  the  pasturing  of  the  cows.  During  the  winter  they 
consumed  about  six  tons  of  bran  and  meal,  seventy-five 
bushels  of  corn,  and  twelve  tons  of  corn-fodder;  and  as 
the  bran  cost  about  $9  per  ton  and  the  corn  but  25  cents 
per  bushel  and  fodder  but  $3  per  ton,  it  will  be  seen 
that  I  had  a  fair  profit.  If,  however,  the  prices  of  food 
had  been  doubled,  as  they  sometimes  are,  I  should  have 
made  but  a  small  profit  at  the  price  received. 

To  make  a  butter  dairy  profitable  will  require  careful 
attention  to  all  the  details,  and  it  will  not  do  to  trust 
too  much  to  hired  help. 


SHEEP  FARMING. 

Waldo  F.  Brown,  Sir: — You  wish  me  to  write  a  brief 
article  on  Sheep,  in  such  fashion  that  it  shall  be  the 
"best  guide  to  success."     I  know  no   better  way  than  to 


506  SUCCESS    IX    FAIIMIXG. 

i^ivemy  own  methods,  which  are  based  on  long  experience. 

Stephen  Powers. 


SOILS    AND  breeds. 

All  shec])  do  best  on  a  dr}',  limestone  soil;  bnt  they 
will  do  well  on  any  soil,  provided  it  is  dry.  The  Merino 
loves  the  high  hills,  and  is  less  tolerant  of  moisture 
than  the  English  long-wools.  But  for  anj^  breed  of 
sheep,  if  the  soil  is  not  dry,  it  should  be  made  so,  or  else 
l)ut  to  other  uses,  for  it  is  a  losing  business  to  attempt 
to  breed  sheep  on  low,  damp  ground.  Every  breed  of 
sheep  does  w^ell  in  every  climate  within  the  temperate 
zone,  provided  the  process  of  acclimation  is  conducted 
slowh\  The  Merino  does  equally  well  in  the  rigorous 
ivinter  of  Vermont  and  under  the  torrid  sun  of  the  Dar- 
ling Downs  of  Australia.  The  Chiviots  of  Scotland 
could  doubtless  be  transported  to  Brazil  and  flourish ; 
T)ut  the  removal  might  have  to  be  made  by  so  man}- 
short  steps  as  to  occupy  a  century. 

The  American  Merino,  for  a  general-purpose  sheep, 
probably  stands  without  a  peer.  The  idea  that  the  av- 
erage full-grown  sheep  of  any  one  of  the  improved  breeds 
yields  better  mutton  than  the  average  full-grown  sheej) 
of  any  other,  is  fallacious.  The  special  superiority  of 
the  British  long- wools  as  mutton-producers,  is  this: 
They  do  not  34eld  better  mutton  than  the  Merino  at  the 
^ame  age,  but  they  bring  it  into  market  so  much  earlier. 
The  young  of  all  animals  whose  flesh  is  used  for  food,  are 
esteemed  by  the  gourmets  of  great  cities  far  above  those 
of  more  mature  age.  A  Cots  wold  or  an  Improved  Ken- 
tucky will  rear  a  lamb  weighing  seventy-five  or  a  hun- 
dred pounds  inside  of  six  months,  and  the  flesh  of  that 
lamb  is  worth  in  the  city  twice  or  thrice  as  much  per 


SHEEF     FARMING.  207 

pound  as  the  flesh  ot  a  3'earling,  because  of  its  tender 
age.  It  is  no  better  eating  than  the  Merino  lamb,  but  is 
more  profitable  near  a  great  city,  simply  because  of  its 
precocity'  The  remarks  in  this  paper  refer  to  the 
American  Merino,  but  they  will  be  equally  applicable  to 
the  English  long  wools  by  observing  the  following  rule: 
Whenevei  the  number  of  sheep  in  a  flock  is  given,  di- 
vide by  two,  wherever  the  ration  per  head  is  given,  mul- 
tiply two. 

CHOICE   OF  BREEDERS. 

A  well  wooled  ram  may  be  a  poor  stock-getter.  The 
latter  quality  will  have  to  be  determined  b}^  trial.  A 
quality  especially  desirable  is  pre-potenc^^,  that  is,  the 
power  to  mark  his  progeny  strongly  after  himself.  In 
selecting  a  ram  whose  stock-getting  qualities  are  un- 
known, the  purchaser  should  observe  the  following 
points :  A  keen,  bright,  prominent  e3^e ;  bright  pink  skin ; 
thick  spermatic  cords;  arched  nose,  deeply  furrowed  be- 
low the  eyes,  short,  broad  head;  short,  thick,  heavy 
neck ;  broad,  deep  chest ;  broad  on  top  of  the  withers ; 
straight,  strong,  wide  back:  broad  loin  and  rump;  thick 
between  stifle  joints,  large,  round  barrel,  ribs  well 
sprung  out;  well  down  in  the  flanks;  short,  straight  legs, 
well  spread  apart,  straight  from  the  rump  to  the  ground ; 
profusely  covered  from  a  point  two  inches  below  the  eyes 
to  the  hoofs  with  a  long,  dense  fleece  of  buff'-colored 
wool,  finel}^  crimped  to  the  end  of  the  fiber  and  free  from 
gare,  (hair),  on  the  neck  and  hips,  of  a  dark  color  on  the 
outside  which  will  not  bleach  in  the  storms;  growing 
three  inches  long  in  a  year;  cheek,  leg  and  belly  wool 
(especially  the  latter)  to  be  of  good  length  and  dense; 
scrotum  Avell  covered;  wool  around  the  eyes  not  obstruct- 
ing the  sight ;  plent}'  of  smallish  folds  on  the  neck,  some 
on  the  body  and  across  the  stifles,  one  low  down  on  each 


208  SUCCESS    IX    FARMING. 

flank,  and  one  shaped  like  a  horseshoe  on  the  rump,  the- 
heavier  here  the  better.  Most  of  the  above  points  should 
be  sought  for  in  the  ewe;  })ut  for  a  good  breeder,  she- 
should  be  especially  heavy  in  the  hind-quarters.  The 
"ewe-neck,"  with  the  droop  just  in  front  of  the  withers, 
is  to  be  avoided ;  it  indicates  lack  of  constitution.  The 
first,  second,  and  third  points  in  a  good  sheep  are — con- 
stitution. 

BREEDING. 

In  determining  the  time  of  lambing,  the  owner  must 
consider  the  size  of  his  flock,  the  quality  and  amount  of 
spring  feed,  etc.  A  small  flock  well  housed,  well  fed  on 
])ran,  roots,  clover  hay  and  fodder,  and  thoroughl}'  looked 
after,  may  be  lambed  to  advantage  in  March,  or  even 
earlier.  It  is  imperative  that  the  ewes  sliould  have  daily 
as  much  exercise  as  the^-  would  get  in  walking,  sa}^,  two- 
miles,  constant  access  to  salt,  clear  water  at  least  once 
ti  day,  and  enough  of  the  above  feed  to  make  a  generous 
flow  of  milk.  If  these  cannot  be  guaranteed,  lambing 
liad  better  be  deferred  until  grass  grows.  A  ewe  fed  on  hay 
and  corn  may  be  fat  and  yean  a  large  lamb,  yet  have  na 
milk,  and  consequenth'  disown  it;  and  then  a  year's 
work  is  lost.  Milk  must  be  had  at  all  costs.  Never 
lamb  on  green  rye,  but  when  the  lamb  is  a  week  old,  the 
ewe  may  be  turned  on  it  with  advantage,  if  other  green 
feed  is  scarce.  Of  all  cultivated  grasses,  I  like  orchard 
grass  best  for  sheep-pasture;  it  grows  so  early  in  the- 
spring  and  so  late  in  the  fall.  Not  over  150  ewes  should 
be  kept  in  a  flock,  and  each  should  have  a.t  least  ten 
square  feet  in  the  shed,  with  access  to  a  3^ard  or  lot  by 
da}^  As  long  as  grass  remains  dead  in  the  winter,  they 
may  run  on  it  with  considerable  freedom;  but  as  soon 
as  it  sprouts  in  the  spring  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
graze  on  it  at  all  until  about  a  week  before  such  time  as- 


SHEEP    FARMING.  209 

it  will  do  to  turn  them  out  altogether.  First  let  them 
out  a  half  hour  a  da3%  then  an  hour,  and  so  on.  Con- 
tinue the  feed  of  grain  until  the  grass  gets  heart.  One 
hundred  ewes  should  have,  during  lambing,  a  bushel  of 
"shipstufF"  or  two  bushels  of  bran;  feed  in  flat-bot- 
tomed troughs  to  prevent  "  hogging."' 

During  lambing  look  over  the  flock  every  hour.  If  a 
ewe  goes  apart  and  remains  alone  but  does  not  brin^ 
forth,  examine  her;  thrust  in  the  hand  carefull}^  to  as- 
certain if  there  is  not  constriction  or  growing-up  of  the 
uterus — a  complaint  to  which  the  Merino  ewe  is  liable. 
Take  nothing  for  granted  respecting  a  3'oung  lamb  until 
you  actuall^^  see  him  suck  and  know  that  he  gets  his 
milk.  But  be  careful  not  to  interfere  with  a  3'oung  ewe 
until  3'ou  are  certain  that  she  needs  help,  or  has  aban- 
doned her  lamb.  If  she  has  disowned  it  put  her  up  with 
it  in  a  small  pen  and  whip  her  occasionally;  I  have 
known  a  ewe  to  stand  out  a  month,  and  yet  own  it  at 
last. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  LAMBS. 

They  should  be  docked  and  castrated  before  flies  get 
about,  and  a  little  fish  oil  smeared  on  the  tail  to  keep 
away  such  as  may  be  fl3^ing  around.  Keep  a  roofed 
trough  in  the  field  with  salt  in  it,  to  teach  them  to  eat 
from  a  trough.  Wean  them  early  in  August;  turn  the 
ewes  on  the  driest  pasture,  and  the  lambs  on  the  green- 
est and  freshest.  But  above  all,  the  lambs  should  not 
be  put  into  a  field  where  there  are  stagnant  springs 
trickling  down  through  the  grass.  These  breed  the  par- 
asites which  cause  "paper-skin" — that  many-formed 
and  the  most  fatal  malady  which  American  sheep  have 
to  contend  with.  The  dampest  and  foggiest  river-bot- 
tom, with  clear  running  water  to  drink,  is  better  than 
the  cleanest  and  driest  hill-pasture,  if  the  latter  has  n@ 

14 


210  SUCCESS   IN   FARMING. 

water  but  a  drooling  spring.  After  the  sheep  is  a  year 
old,  the  liability  to  this  disease  is  substantially  passed. 
Beginning  gradually,  one  hundred  lambs  will  soon  eat  a 
bushel  of  bran  a  day.  If  they  are  late  lambs  they  should 
have  all  the  bran  they  will  eat,  to  push  them  forward 
rapidly  for  winter.  Add  a  little  oats  when  frost  falls, 
and  corn  when  the  snow  flies.  By  New  Years  feed  a 
bushel  a  day  to  one  hundred — half  bran,  and  a  quarter 
each  of  oats  and  corn.  Lambs  will  winter  excellently  on 
this  ration  and  bright  corn  fodder.  When  they  are  first 
taken  up  from  grass,  keep  them  up  abou  two  days  with 
no  coarse  feed  before  them  except  fodder,  (increasing  the 
grain  feed  while  they  are  being  broken  in),  then  let  them 
out  an  hour  or  two  on  some  good  rowen.  Persevere  in 
this  about  ten  days,  letting  them  out  two  or  three  times 
on  grass  meantime;  b}^  this  time  the}'  will  eat  fodder 
nicely;  then  they  may  have  hay  at  night  and  fodder  in 
the  morning.  If  they  learn  to  eat  hay  first,  it  is  more 
difficult  to  break  them  to  eat  fodder.  They  may  grow  a 
little  gaunt  before  they  come  to  their  fodder;  but  there 
is  no  occasion  for  concern,  they  will  be  all  right  in  two 
weeks.  The  same  caution  applies  to  them  as  to  ewes  re- 
specting grass  after  it  has  sprouted  in  the  spring.  Green 
grass  and  hay  will  not  splice;  the  transition  must  be 
cflected  in  a  very  few  days,  and  it  is  the  grain  ration 
which  must  be  depended  on  to  let  the  sheep  down  easy 
from  one  to  the  other,  either  way. 

TAGGING  AND  WASHING. 

Before  they  are  turned  on  grass  in  the  spring,  all  the 
wool  about  the  vent  and  hind  legs  that  the  dung  could 
touch,  should  be  closely  cut  away  to  prevent  fouling. 
This  is  especially  important  with  breeding  ewes;  if  they 
are  handled  carefully  it  may  be  done  with  perfect  safety. 
To  neglect  this  is  little  less  than  infamous ;  the  maggots 


SHEEP    FARMING.  211 

get  in  and  cause  untold  trouble  to  the  shepherd  and 
miserable  suffering  to  the  sheep.  Even  in  the  summer, 
say  about  weaning  time,  all  the  ewe  lambs  should  be 
tagged  carefully,  (they  are  most  liable  to  foul),  to  pre- 
Tent  the  lodgment  of  that  abominable  pest,  the  maggot 
A  iamb  attaclied  by  them  soon  succumbs,  and  after  ihej 
have  had  free  course  for  two  or  three  daj's,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  save  its  life.  As  to  washing,  it  is  idle  to 
cry  out  against  it,  so  long  as  manufacturers  continue  to 
buy  unwashed  wool  at  a  dockage  of  one-third.  No  wool- 
grower  can  submit  to  that  unless  he  houses  his  sheep 
the  year  round,  thus  retaining  all  the  yolk  in  the  fleece^ 
Washing  is  an  evil  in  man}-  ways,  but  it  is  one  which 
must  be  faced.  The  only  rational  course  for  the  farmer 
is  to  seek  to  mitigate  it  as  much  as  possible  by  employ- 
ing careful  men,  giving  his  personal  attention  to  everj 
detail,  and  sternly  repressing  all  cruelty  or  unnecessarj 
roughness  with  the  sheep.  Wash  them  early  on  a  bright, 
calm  day,  and  turn  them  on  a  clean  pasture  to  dry, 
where  there  is  no  wind;  it  will  not  damage  them  to  anj 
considerable  extent. 

SHEARING,    MARKING,  ETC. 

It  is  legitimate  to  let  the  flock  run  after  washing  until 
the  yolk  flows  to  the  extremit}^  of  the  fiber  again,  saj 
two  weeks.  But  it  is  not  legitimate  to  shear  sheep  when 
they  are  in  the  least  degree  moist  with  dew  or  rain ;  the 
greatest  pains  must  be  taken  to  keep  them  dr^^  before 
shearing,  else  the  fleeces  will  mold.  Neither  is  it  legiti- 
mate to  pile  the  fleeces  in  a  damp  room,  near  the  ground, 
nor  to  do  up  dead  wool  in  them.  But  it  is  legitimate  to 
put  into  them  the  tags  sheared  ofl*  early  in  the  springy 
after  subjecting  them  to  one  careful  washing  in  clears, 
cold  water,  such  as  the  sheep  were  washed  in,  A  com- 
mon grocer's  scale  should  be  kept  standing  near  on  a. 


212  SUCCESS    IN   FARMING. 

hox,  adjusted  to  a  certain  weight,  (the  standard  to 
which  the  flock  is  bred),  and  every  fleece  should  be 
thrown  on  it  by  the  shearer.  If  it  comes  up  to  the 
standard,  well  and  good;  if  not,  let  the  sheep  (which  has 
been  retained  meantime  by  a  strap  buckled  around  be- 
hind its  fore-legs  and  attached  to  a  rope  suspended 
from  above),  be  marked  for  sale.  Even  if  the  fleece  is 
"weight,"  if  the  sheep  shows  failing  teeth,  let  it  be 
condemned,  too.  Let  all  sheep  beyond  middle  age  be 
weeded  out  inexorably,  especial^  if  the  flock  is  a  large 
one.  After  shearing  is  over,  put  all  these  culls  in  a  lot 
by  themselves ;  give  them  every  advantage  of  the  pas- 
ture, get  them  fat  if  possible,  and  sell  them  for  what 
they  will  fetch.  Do  not  mix  them  with  good  sheep; 
keep  the  latter  separate  and  demand  the  highest  market 
price  for  them ;  they  will  find  a  buyer.  Do  not  be  in 
any  hurry  about  selling  wool.  Four  times  out  of  five  it 
will  sell  higher  in  three  or  six  months  after  shearing 
than  it  will  at  shearing.  Borrow  what  money  is  needed 
for  immediate  use,  and  let  the"  clip  lie  in  the  wool-room 
until  the  "  bear"  movement  is  passed. 

PASTURAGE,    ETC. 

One  acre  of  fair  upland  pasture  ought  to  support  three 
grown  sheep;  it  is  safe  to  calculate  on  this  basis.  Keep 
the  flocks  moving  about.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  move  them 
every  week,  if  possible;  at  least  every  two  weeks. 
It  is  better  to  keep  a  large  number  of  sheep  in  a  certain 
pasture  a  short  time  than  to  keep  a  small  number  there 
a  long  time.  Sheep  are  fond  of  change,  CA^en  if  they  can 
do  no  better  than  to  occupy  a  field  from  which  another 
flock  has  just  been  taken.  They  ought  to  be  turned  on 
to  grass  early  enough  in  the  spring  to  prevent  it  from 
growing  up  too  rank.  It  is  sheer  waste  to  let  June  grass> 
for  instance,  or  blue  grass,  go  to  seed ;  it  should  be  kept 


SHEEP    FARMING.  Zl.> 

■SO  depastured  that  it  will  throw  up  a  seed-stalk  only 
here  and  there,  and  that  only  a  few  inches  in  height. 
Sheep  will  do  no  good  in  a  field  of  grass  which  has  gone 
to  seed.  They  should  be  taken  off  in  the  fall  early 
enough  to  allow  the  grass  to  cover  its  roots  with  some 
matting  as  a  protection  in  the  winter.  It  is  better  to 
take  them  off  earl}-  in  autumn  and  put  them  back  early 
in  the  spring  than  to  be  late  in  the  fall  and  late  in  the 
spring.  About  the  middle  of  November,  if  the  flocks 
begin  to  show  signs  of  falling  off,  it  is  well  to  take  a 
small  ration  of  shelled  corn  out  every  day,  and  sow  it 
broadcast  on  a  clean  short  sod.  This  gives  all  an  equal 
chance  and  keeps  them  in  good  heart  until  they  are 
ready  to  go  into  winter  quarters. 

WINTER    CARE. 

Sheep  ought  to  be  yarded,  except  for  an  hour  or  two 
€ach  da}',  when  the}'  may  be  allowed  to  run  on  an  old 
sod  or  in  the  woods.  If  nothing  better  offers,  turn  them 
into  a  corn  stubble;  thev  will  take  much  satisfaction  and 
needed  exercise  in  browsing  the  stubs.  Their  yard  must 
be  in  a  dry  place,  with  a  good  wind-break  on  the  ex- 
posed sides,  and  a  shed  open  on  the  east  or  south  side, 
furnished  with  sets  of  sliding  doors,  so  that  it  can  be 
thrown  open  if  desired,  or  shut  up  tight  with  the  flock 
inside  in  a  severe  storm.  A  dry  flock  should  have  a 
shed  large  enough  to  allow  eight  or  ten  square  feet  per 
Tiead,  and  they  should  not  be  compelled  to  occupy  even 
that,  except  during  storms.  Sheep  desire  a  variety  in 
their  ration,  and  to  this  end  the  sheep-houses  on  the 
farm  should  be  clustered  as  nearl}^  together  as  good  ven- 
tilation will  permit,  and  all  the  different  kinds  of  feed  so 
disposed  in  stacks  or  graneries  that  some  of  each  can  be 
•given  out  to  every  flock.  Fodder  should  be  fed  in  an 
open  yard — a  space  sixty  feet  square  will  suffice  for  one 


-14  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

hundred  and  fifty  sheep — so  that  the  stalks  may  receive 
the  rains  of  the  next  summer,  and  be  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  manure  by  fall.  It  is  not  well  to  allow  hogs  to 
follow  sheep  with  the  view  of  triturating  the  stalks  more 
rapidly;  they  foul  the  feeding  ground  so  that  sheep  will 
not  eat  up  their  feed  clean.  Ha3^  should  be  given  in  the 
ordinary  slatted  boxes  under  cover — as  much  as  they 
will  eat  clean  and  no  more,  which  can  be  ascertained  in 
a  few  days  by  careful  observation.  A  good  rotation  isr 
fodder  in  the  morning,  corn  at  noon,  hay  at  night.  Stock 
«heep  should  be  wintered  mostly  on  coarse  feed,  with 
only  enough  grain  to  keep  them  in  good  heart,  say  half 
a  pound  of  corn  or  oats  per  head  per  day.  It  is  more 
profitable  to  give  a  little  grain  than  to  keep  a  flock  en- 
tirely on  coarse  feed.  With  straw  of  any  kind  a  pound 
a,  day  should  be  given.  The  sheep-house  should  be  lit- 
tered with  the  orts  and  cleaned  out  once  a  month ;  if  left 
longer  than  that  the  ammonia  arising  impairs  the  ani- 
mals' health,  and  forces  them  to  stay  out  in  storms  when 
they  would  otherwise  seek  shelter.  When  sheep  be- 
gin to  scratch  their  briskets  it  is  a  sure  sign  the  ma- 
nure ought  to  be  removed.  All  gi'ain  should  be  fed  in. 
flat-bottomed  troughs,  in  a  clean  yard  devoted  to  this 
purpose,  with  the  troughs  so  arranged  that  the  sheep  will 
run  in  lengthwise  of  them.  The  fashion  of  the  hay-box 
does  not  matter  so  much  as  the  kind  of  feed  put  into  it. 
If  the  hay  is  bright  and  sweet  the^^  will  stand  still  and 
eat  it,  and  not  waste  it  by  pulling  out  their  heads  and' 
running  about.  All  kinds  of  grass  for  sheep- feed  ought 
to  be  cut  when  in  bloom,  or  even  earlier. 

FEEDING   FOR  MARKET. 

Sheep  intended  for  feeding,  should  be  in  good  order 
when  put  into  winter  quarters,  and  pains  must  be  taken 
not  to  allow  them  to  fall  off  from  the  start.     Whatever 


SHEEP    FARMING.  215 

grain  is  given,  must  be  given  with  tiie  utmost  regularity 
— no  cliange,  for  instance,  from  shelled  corn  to  the  ear. 
They  should  have  their  grain  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  and 
at  every  feed  the  eye  of  the  master  himself  should  watch 
them  carefull}^;  if,  after  the  bulk  of  the  flock  have  fin- 
ished, there  is  still  a  little  grain  left,  and  a  few  linger 
and  keep  on  eating,  they  should  be  driven  from  the  pen 
wdth  the  others,  and  the  pen  closed,  or  the  remnant  of 
feed  removed.  Sheep  should  not  have  grain  lying  by 
them,  like  fatting  hogs.  The  fattening  process  ought  to 
be  pushed  to  completion,  so  far  as  the  profit  is  concerned, 
in  five  or  six  weeks.  Merinoes  will  not  do  the  best  that 
is  in  them  until  they  are  three  or  four  3^ears  old.  Some 
feeders  consider  it  the  most  profitable  way  to  give  only 
enough  grain  through  the  winter  to  keep  the  flock  in  ns 
good  condition  as  thev  were  in  fall;  at  the  last  push 
them  for  about  three  or  four  weeks ;  then  turn  on  grass 
for  a  month ;  wash,  shear  and  sell  wool  and  carcass  sep- 
arate. 

FULL- BLOODS  AXD  GRADES. 

For  years  I  shared  in  the  popular  belief  that  full- 
bloods  are  not  as  hardy  as  grades ;  but  I  am  now  satis- 
fied, and  record  it  as  my  opinion,  that  if  full-blood 
American  Merinoes  are  taken  from  a  stud-flock  near  by, 
and  graduall}^  wonted  to  an  open-air  life  in  the  summer, 
they  will  soon  learn  to  endure  it  as  well  as  the  grades. 
But  if  full-bloods  are  brought  from  a  stud-flock  in  a  dis- 
tant and  difterent  climate,  they  must  become  acclimated 
before  an  attempt  is  made  to  depart  from  the  system  of 
housing  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed. 

PAPER-SKIN. 

This  one  name  covers  a  disease  of  several  forms,  all 
of  them  caused  by  parasites  in  difl^erent  viscera.  Only 
lambs  are  subject  to  it  to  any  extent.     All  medicining  is 


216 


SUCCESS    m    FARMING. 


more  or  less  unsatisfactory;  the  best  remedy  is,  to  give 
once  a  day  a  teaspoonful  composed  of  equal  parts  of  tur- 
pentine and  linseed  oil.  If  the  parasites  are  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  it  is  well  to  give  pumpkins,  split 
in  halves  and  laid  flat  side  up  in  flat-bottomed  troughs 
divided  into  small  compartments.  The  seeds  are  thought 
to  be  the  most  efficacious  part.  Prevention  is  far  more 
important  than  cure;  and  this  must  be  accomplished  by 
generous  feeding,  keeping  the  lamb  strong  and  thrifty 
;all  summer,  until  it  is  taken  off"  grass;  keeping  it  away 
from  foul  sju-ings,  and  away  from  pastures  on  which 
paper-skin  sheep  have  lately  run.  The  external  indica^ 
tions  of  this  disease  are  a  very  pale,  bloodless,  bluish 
skin,  lassitude,  and  extreme  lightness  in  weight.  If  the 
parasites  are  in  the  lungs,  the  animal  coughs;  if  in  the 
kidneys,  it  urinates  frequently. 

FOOT-ROT  AND  SCALD-FOOT. 

These  ailments  ought  to  be  kept  carefully  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  first  is  contagious;  the  second  not. 
Both  begin  in  the  cleft  of  the  hoof — a  galled  appearance 
— and  for  the  first  two  or  three  weeks  not  one  shepherd 
in  a  hundred  can  distinguish  between  them.  If  it  is 
foot-rot  it  will  now  begin  to  spread  in  the  flock,  and  it 
will  go  rapidly  from  bad  to  worse  until  the  foot  is  sub- 
stantialh^  destroyed;  if  it  is  scald-foot,  it  may  remain 
stationary  for  weeks  or  months,  no  other  sheep  taking  it, 
(though  in  hot  weather  maggots  may  get  into  the  feet), 
or  it  may  get  well  of  itself.  Scald-foot  is  nothing  to  be 
feared,  but,  lest  it  should  be  the  rot,  it  is  well  to  treat 
it  as  such.  Sprinkle  finely-powdered  blue  vitriol  in  the 
cleft  of  the  foot,  working  it  well  in.  If  it  is  the  foot-rot, 
well-seated,  the  vitriol  must  be  applied  in  a  warm  solu- 
tion, setting  the  foot  down  in  it,  all  the  lurking-places  of 
the  disease  having  been  previousl}^  laid  bare  by  an  un- 


SHEEP    FARMING.  217 

sparing  use  of  the  knife.     Turn  the  sheep  on  a  dry  sod, 
4ind  repeat  in  a  week. 

GRUB  IN  THE  HEAD. 

When  a  sheep  seems  to  have  A^ertigo,  goes  about  in  a 
circle,  twisting  its  head  around,  or  makes  sudden,  erratic 
dashes,  the  chances  are  ten  to  one  that  it  has  grub  in 
the  head.  Turn  it  on  its  back,  thrust  a  strong  wheat 
straw  carefully  up  the  nostril,  (it  will  go  up  five  or  six 
inches),  withdraw  the  straw,  suck  it  full  of  turpentine, 
put  it  up  the  nostril  again  and  blow  out  the  turpentine. 
Let  the  sheep  up  a  minute,  then  repeat  in  the  other 
nostril. 

OTHER    DISEASES. 

For  colic  or  stretches,  caused  by  a  too  abrupt  change 
from  grass  to  hay,  dose  freely  with  salt.  For  any  kind 
of  vegetable  poison,  drench  a  grown  sheep  with  a  half 
pint  of  whisky,  a  younger  one  with  less.  For  diarrhea 
give  two  tablespoonfuls  of  linseed  oil.  For  maggots, 
shear  the  wool  off"  close  to  the  skin,  and  smear  on  fresh, 
thin  tar  until  it  reaches  the  skin  everywhere.  For  ticks, 
give  constant  access  to  a  box  containing  three  parts  salt 
and  two  of  sulphur,  and  keep  the  sheep  out  of  the  rain. 
For  scab,  dose  with  sulphur  and  linseed  oil. 

These  are  really  about  all  the  diseases  which,  in  the 
simple  and  elementar}^  regimen  under  which  sheep-farm- 
ing is  as  3^et  conducted,  the  American  shepherd  has  to 
treat.  The  books  are  burdened  with  lists  of  maladies 
which  trouble  the  English  flock-master,  with  his  more 
complicated  methods  and  high  fed  flocks ;  but  they  need 
not  give  us  much  concern  at  present. 


218  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

POULTRY  FOR  PROFIT. 

WRITTEN  BY  MISS  M.  BROWN,  OXFORD,  OHIO. 

All  over  our  country  there  is  a  general  waking  up  to 
the  interests  of  agriculture,  and  among  our  best  farmers 
the  feeling  is  growing  that  success  can  be  reached  by 
careful  attention  to  little  things — the  developing  of  the 
resources  within  the  grasp  of  every  farmer  and  his  wife. 

Every  one  will  admit  the  expedienc}^  of  keeping  foAvls- 
on  a  farm,  that  his  own  table  may  be  supplied  with 
fresh  eggs  and  that  the  butcher's  bill  may  be  reduced^ 
throughout  the  season.  But  much  more  than  this  may 
be  attained  with  but  little  outlay,  and  attended  by  much 
pleasure  and  profit.  The  old  way  of  getting  a  lot  of 
hens  and  two  or  three  cocks  of  no  distinct  breed,  of 
letting  them  look  after  themselves  through  the  summer 
and  roost  in  the  trees  all  winter,  must  by  abandoned;  for 
during  such  a  winter  as  that  of  '81,  some  farmers  who- 
kept  a  hundred  hens,  were  without  eggs  for  their  own 
use  during  most  of  the  winter.  The  age  of  the  hens 
should  be  accurately  kept,  and  they  should  be  made  to 
do  service  in  the  dinner  pot  before  they  have  ceased  to- 
"be  profitable  for  eggs.  I  find  that  it  is  safest,  especially 
with  the  larger  breeds  of  chickens,  never  to  keep  a  hen 
over  two  3'ears,  and  new  blood  should  be  introduced 
through  the  cocks  each  year.  If  you  want  to  loose  your 
young  chickens  with  the  gaps,  and  contend  with  all  the- 
diseases  chicken  flesh  is  heir  to,  keep  your  own  cocks^ 
from  year  to  year,  until  the  relationship  between  mother 
and  ofispring  shall  be  as  intricate  as  a  Chinese  puzzle. 

How  shall  poultry  raising  be  made  profitable  to  thfr 
average  farmer?  is  a  question  worth  stud^'ing,  and  I 
gladly  give  you  my  experience,  gained  by  actual  practice 
for  a  number  of  years. 


POULTRY  FOR  PROFIT.  211> 

In  the  first  place  do  not  try  to  keep  too  many  hens. 
From  twenty-five  to  fifty  at  the  most,  through  the 
winter,  but  give  this  number  the  proper  care  and  j'ou 
will  be  surprised  at  the  handsome  profit. 

First,  select  a  suitable  place  for  your  chicken  house, 
well  drained,  with  a  southern  exposure,  and  sheltered 
by  buildings  on  the  north  and  west,  if  possible. 
Whether  you  have  this  shelter  or  not,  by  buildings, 
plant  an  evergreen  hedge  on  one  or  both  of  these  sides ; 
arbor  vitse  is  my  choice :  Trees  two  feet  high  can  be  had 
for  a  few  cents  each,  and  if  set  three  or  four  feet  apart, 
will  soon  grow  into  a  dense  hedge.  My  own,  set  nine 
years  ago,  is  now  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  a  comfort  to 
the  chickens  every  day  in  the  year.  This  hedge  is  their 
"city  of  refuge."  They  run  to  it  for  protection  against 
wind,  rain  and  snow  storms ;  they  hide  under  it  by  day 
to  escape  the  hawks;  and  all  through  the  hot  months  of 
summer  climb  among  its  branches  at  night  to  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  skunks  and  weasels.  During  the  terrible 
heat  of  the  past  summer,  1881,  this  hedge  was  the  chief 
source  of  consolation  to  the  3^oung  chickens.  They 
would  crawl  under  and  among  the  close  branches  for 
shelter  until  on  close  inspection,  sometimes,  it  looked 
like  a  tree  bearing  chickens  for  fruit.  Plant  this  hedge 
by  all  means;  and  then  build  your  chicken  house 
within  its  sheltering  protection  and  3^ou  have  gone  a 
long  way  toward  making  poultr^^  raising  a  success. 

A  house  fourteen  feet  long  and  six  wide  can  accomo- 
date comfortabl}^,  fifty  chickens  through  the  winter. 
My  own  is  built  against  the  barn,  seven  feet  high  at  the 
back,  with  a  slope  of  two  feet  for  the  roof;  half  of  the 
front  is  of  glass  to  let  the  sunshine  in,  and  this  half  is 
always  kept  supplied  with  fresh  chip-dirt.  To  look  in 
here  some   bright  winter   day  would  make  3^ou  believe 


:220  .   SUCCESS  in  farming. 

•chicken  happiness  was  a  cheap  thing.  There  is  a  board 
three  inches  high  to  separate  the  dusting  place  and  the 
part  over  whicli  the  chickens  roost.  It  is  all  boarded 
over  the  floor  with  two  inch  oak  planks,  so  that  not  even 
a  weasel  or  mouse  can  get  in  when  the  door  is  closed. 
Dry  dirt  is  kept  over  the  floor  to  absorb  the  droppings, 
and  during  the  summer  months  is  scraped  into  a  barrel 
once  every  two  weeks.  Every  spring  this  house  is 
whitewashed,  inside  and  out,  and  occasionally  kerosene 
oil  is  applied  to  the  roosts  and  turned  into  the  cracks. 

I  have  never  found  it  best  in  a  small  chicken  house 
like  this  to  have  the  laying  boxes  connected  with  it,  but 
have  a  small  slide  door  through  into  the  barn,  and  there 
have  boxes  and  kegs  arranged  in  a  suitable  number. 
The  objection  I  have  to  the  nests  being  so  close  to- 
gether is  that  in  cold  weather,  when  closely  confined, 
.for  the  lack  of  other  modes  of  exercise  they  scratch  their 
.nests  to  pieces,  break,  and  often  learn  to  eat  their  eggs. 
During  the  summer  months  most  of  the  hens  vacate  the 
house  at  night,  but  as  soon  as  the  weather  begins  to  get 
rough,  can,  by  a  little  coaxing,  all  be  gathered  in;  and 
before  this  time  I  try  to  sell  oft'  and  reduce  my  stock  to 
the  number  that  can  be  comfortably  wintered.  When 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  I  feed  liberally  every 
morning  with  what  is  called  ship-stuff" — a  mixture  of 
bran  and  shorts — wet  with  scalding  water  and  then  cool- 
ed with  skim-milk;  also  feed  scraps  from  the  table,  occa- 
sionally sunflower  seeds,  and  cayenne  peppers  mixed  with 
the  bran ;  and  at  noon  give  a  light  feed  of  some  kind  of 
whole  grain.  Let  the  amount  be  regulated  by  the 
"weather.  Chickens  do  much  better  when  made  to  for 
.nge  for  themselves,  and  the}-  destroy  a  vast  amount  of 
weed  seed  and  insects  of  every  description,  the  Colorado 
beetle  excepted.     I  always  make  my  hens  get  down  off 


POULTRY  FOR  PROFIT.  221 

the  roosts  and  come  out  doors  to  get  their  feed,  no  mat- 
ter what  the  weather  is.  During  a  snow  storm  we 
always  clear  away  the  snow  for  quite  a  space  around 
the  house  so  they  can  get  at  the  gravel  and  come  out  for 
fresh  air  and  exercise.  An  iron  kettle  holding  a  couple 
of  gallons  of  water,  is  sunk  within  two  inches  of  the  top 
in  earth  and  is  kept  full  of  water.  During  the  summer 
cobble  stones  are  thrown  into  the  kettle  so  the  little 
chickens  are  in  no  danger  of  drowning.  During  very 
cold  weather  the  water  must  be  hot  to  melt  the  ice,  and 
as  soon  as  it  cools  sufficiently  the  chickens  will  gather- 
and  drink  until  the  water  is  lowered  several  inches,  and 
thus  leave  space  for  the  next  watering.  A  trough  long 
enough  for  all  the  chickens  to  gather  around  is  best  for 
receiving  the  feed. 

One  of  the  main  points  in  poultry  raising  is  to  secure 
early  pullets,  and  this  can  be  done  b}^  a  little  care  and 
pains.  Some  time  in  February  or  the  fore  part  of 
March  select  the  very  roundest  eggs,  gathered  on  warm 
days  when  there  is  no  danger  of  their  getting  chilled,, 
and  if  possible  set  three  hens  at  a  time  and  if  they 
should  not  hatch  well  give  the  chicks  to  two  hens.  Take 
extra  pains  with  the  nests  and  do  not  give  the  hens  over 
thirteen  eggs  each.  A  good  body  of  earth  in  the  bottom 
of  the  hatching  boxes  insures  steady  warmth,  and  is. 
always  an  advantage.  Remove  a  part  of  one  side  of  the 
box  and  have  it  so  arranged  that  the  hen  can  walk- 
directly  on  the  nest  and  is  not  obliged  to  jump  down  on 
the  eggs.  When  the  time  nears  for  the  eggs  to  hatcli. 
prepare  some  coops  that  can  be  perfectly  closed  at 
night,  and  have  a  little  yard  about  the  coop  for  the 
chicks  and  hen  to  run  in  through  the  day.  The  coops 
should  be  located  just  south  of  the  arbor  vitse  hedge.. 
Eeed  the  young  chickens  with  the  bran-mash  and  corui 


222 


SUCCESS  IN  FARMING, 


bread,  but  do  not  give  them  clear,  raw  corn  meal  dough. 

Plymouth  Rock  and  other  hard}^  varieties  of  chickens^ 
with  these  few  simple  arrangements  will  thrive  through 
iiny  weather  our  climate  can  produce  during  the  early 
spring  months.  Pullets  hatched  in  March  or  the  first  of 
Aj)ril,  will  mature  and  begin  laying  in  September,  and 
w^ill  pay  for  themselves  before  Thanksgiving.  I  have  a 
pullet  hatched  during  the  terrible  snow  storm  last 
spring,  that  has  at  this  date,  November  1st,  laid  twenty- 
live  eggs,  and  shows  no  signs  of  sitting  yet. 

During  the  hot  weather  look  out  for  vermin,  and 
grease  your  sitting  hens  under  the  wings  with  a  mix- 
ture ot  lard  and  kerosene.  If  you  have  not  many  hens 
condense  your  broods  of  little  chickens  through  the  hot 
weather.  I  had  two  hens  this  summer  that  raised 
twenty-five  each. 

The  care  of  the  poultry  ought  to  be  given  to  some 
member  of  the  family  and  let  an  accurate  account  be 
kept  of  all  outlay,  and  also  of  the  amount  sold.  There 
is  no  better  way  to  teach  a  child  strict  business  habits 
and  to  teach  it  self-help  and  econom}-,  than  by  giving  it 
an  interest  and  share  in  the  profits, 

A  small  piece  of  ground  planted  in  sun  flowers, 
Dhoura  corn  and  ca3^enne  peppers  will  go  a  long  waj 
toward  feeding  the  chickens  through  the  winter.  The 
demand  for  poultry  and  eggs  is  on  the  increase,  and  it 
is  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the  farmer  to  meet  this  grow- 
ing demand  and  benefit  not  only  himself,  but  the  con- 
sumer. 


CHAPTER     XX. 


TIMBER  GROWING. 

The  number  of  farms  on  which  timber  planting  should 
at  once  be  begun  is  large  and  constantly  increasing. 
Even  in  localities  like  my  own,  where  less  than  thirty 
years  ago  the  question  was  how  to  get  rid  of  the  timber, 
and  deadening  and  burning  was  resorted  to  for  clearing 
the  land,  there  are  now  many  farms  without  fire- wood  and 
very  few  on  which  there  is  any  rail  timber  left.  On  all 
these  farms  timber  plantations  should  be  started  at 
once;  and  even  on  many  which  still  have  a  supply  of 
timber,  it  has  passed  its  prime  and  there  should  be  new 
plantings  made.  As  a  rule,  the  least  valuable  lands 
should  be  planted  in  timber;  that  which  is  too  rolling 
to  cultivate,  and  even  lands  which  have  been  reduced  in 
fertilit}^  by  long  cropping,  will  grow  trees  well. 

The  profits  of  timber  on  such  land  will  often  exceed 
many  times,  all  that  could  have  been  made  from  them  if 
cultivated ;  and  when  planted  in  Locust  it  renews  itself 
after  being  cut,  and  the  second  crop  grows  in  two-thirds 
the  time  required  by  the  first,  and  will  yield  a  regular 
Income  for  several  years.  I  have  had  ten  years  experi- 
ence in  growing  timbers,  but  for  thirty-one  years  have 
lived  in  sight  of  several  groves  of  locust,  and  so  what  I 
state  in  this  chapter  is  fact,  and  not  theory.  My  ex- 
perience extends  to  but  three  varieties  of  timber.  Locust, 
Catalpa  and  Soft  Maple,  and  of  these,  in  all  localities 
where  they  will  thrive,  I  should   expect    the  greatest 


2M 


SUCCESS    IN  FARMING. 


profit  from  the  Locust.  If  fire-wood,  or  a  quick  growing- 
wind-break  is  the  object  sought,  I  would  advise  the 
planting  of  Soft  Maple.  I  cut  a  half  cord  of  wood  last 
spring  trom  eighteen  trees  of  Soft  Maple  occupying  a 
single  row  fift}^  feet  long,  which  had  been  growing  nine 
years;  This  was  at  the  rate  of  over  twenty-five  cords 
to  the  acre  with  the  rows  one  rod  apart.  I  have  trees 
of  this  timber  eighteen  years  old  which  measure  from 
three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  in  circumference,  and  I  esti- 
mate they  wdll  make  over  a  half  cord  each.  Near  my 
farm  is  a  plantation  of  two  acres  of  Locust  which  was 
started  m  1850,  the  seed  being  planted  in  hills  like  corn. 
This  was  cut  off  and  marketed  in  1868,  and  I  know  that 
it  brought  several  hundred  dollars  per  acre;  but  as  i1 
has  changed  hands  I  have  no  way  of  ascertaining  how 
much.  In  1879,  eleven  j^ears  after  it  was  cut  off  clean 
the  owner  began  cutting  the  second  crop  of  posts,  and  1 
visited  it  and  made  a  careful  examination  of  it.  When 
planted  in  1850  the  trees  were  four  feet  apart  each  way; 
but  they  were  thinned  out  and  sold  for  bean  poles  and 
stakes,  so  that  at  the  time  it  was  cut  off  the  trees  stood 
eight  feet  apart.  When  I  visited  it  eleven  years  later,  I 
found  that  each  stump  had  thrown  out  from  three  to 
seven  sprouts,  and  the  largest  of  these  were  now  large 
enough  for  posts  and  cutting  them  out  was  a  positive 
advantage  to  the  remainder,  and  as  the  stumps  averaged 
over  four  of  these  sprouts  1  found  that  over  two  thous- 
and posts  could  be  cut  and  still  leave  the  original  num- 
ber of  trees — 680.  I  have  never  known  these  posts  to 
sell  for  less  than  20  cents  each,  so  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  land  would  yield  a  good  income  on  the  second  crop 
of  trees  after  they  were  eleven  years  old.  For  ten  years 
to  come  from  the  cuttings  and  in  twenty  years  from  the 
iirst    cutting,   if   the  straightest  and   best  trees   were 


TIMBER-GROWING.  225 

allowed  to  stand,  one  to  each  stump,  there  would  be  680 
trees  that  would  make  several  posts  each.  If  allowed 
to  grow  until  each  tree  would  make  ten  posts,  at  20  cents 
each  they  would  bring  $1,360.00,  and  the  wood  from  the 
branches  would  pay  all  the  expense  of  cutting  and  split- 
mg.  There  is  on  this  farm  from  twelve  to  twent}^  acres 
of  Locust  timber,  most  of  it  on  hillsides,  all  of  which 
was  planted,  and  there  is  growing  on  the  land  a  heavy 
crop  of  blue  grass  which  pays  a  fair  interest  on  the  cost 
of  land  and  trees. 

When  I  came  to  Ohio,  in  1848,  there  was  growing  on 
the  farm  I  moved  upon  a  double  row  of  small  Locust 
trees,  twent}^  rods  long.  T  do  not  know  how  long  they 
had  been  planted  but  I  could  easily  carry  one  of  them, 
and  did  dig  up  and  carry  on  my  shoulder  several  of 
them  to  set  around  the  house.  In  1867  these  trees  were 
cut — there  were  thirty-three  of  them — and  tlie}^  aver- 
aged twelve  large  posts  each  and  half  as  many  small 
ones,  which  were  used  for  fence  stakes.  Allowing  one 
rod  of  ground  in  width,  which  these  trees  occupied^ 
there  was  just  one-eighth  acre  and  the  trees  were  scat- 
tering, less  than  two  to  the  square  rod.  The  second 
growth  from  them  is  over  two  hundred  trees,  tall  and 
straight ;  many  of  them  will  make  three  and  some  four 
post  cuts  to  the  tree,  and  there  have  been  posts  made 
from  this  second  growth  for  one  or  two  years  past.  I 
have  seen  a  gate  post  that  squared  six  inches  made 
from  a  Locust  tree  that  grew  from  the  seed  in  eight 
years,  and  I  now  have  on  my  farm  a  ten  year  old  tree 
that  will  split  and  make  two  posts.  I  know  that  in 
some  localities  the  bores  injures  the  Locust  trees,  but  I 
think  it  is  usually  isolated  trees  that  suffer  most,  and  I 
have  never  known  a  plantation  seriously  injured.  I  be- 
lieve there  is  no  investment  that  with  perfect   safety 

15  -_ 


226  SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 

offers  so  large  profits  as  the  planting  of  Locust  timber. 
There  are  lands  suitable  for  this  purpose  which  can  be 
bought  for  $25  to  $35  an  acre,  which,  if  planted  in  Locust 
timber,  in  ten  years  would  be  worth  from  $300  to  $500 
per  acre,  and  at  the  same  time  would  be  taxed  for  per- 
haps less  than  $50  per  acre.  There  is  no  danger  of 
overstocking  the  market,  and  those  who  begin  planting 
Locust  timber  will  soon  reap  a  rich  reward. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  nursery  rows,  in  April  or 
May,  and  must  be  prepared  by  scalding.  Put  it  in  a 
tight  vessel  and  pour  water  nearly  boiling  hot  over  it 
and  let  it  stand  until  cool.  You  then  find  about  one 
seed  in  twelve  swollen  to  three  times  the  ordinar}^  size; 
spread  them  in  the  sun  till  dry  enough  to  handle  and 
then  separate  these  swollen  seeds,  which,  if  the  quantity 
is  small  can  be  done  by  hand,  or  a  sieve  can  be  used 
which  will  retain  the  swollen  seed  and  let  the  remainder 
pass  through.  The  seed  which  does  not  swell  must  be 
treated  with  the  hot  water  repeatedly;  each  time  a  larger 
proportion  will  swell,  and  from  four  to  six  applications 
of  the  hot  water  will  be  necessary.  Seed  prepared  in 
this  way  will  come  up  as  quickly  as  corn,  but  if  the 
w^eather  is  not  suitable  for  planting  it  may  be  kept  in  a 
cool  place  for  a  week  or  more.  If  it  must  be  kept,  spread 
it  an  inch  or  so  in  depth  in  some  vessel,  and  set  on  the 
cellar  bottom  and  cover  with  a  damp  cloth.  Sow  in 
shallow  drills  three  feet  apart,  eight  to  twelve  seeds  to 
the  foot  of  drill,  and  cover  an  inch  deep.  Give  good 
culture  and  they  will  grow  from  three  to  five  feet  high 
the  first  season.  Always  set  out  in  the  plantation  atone 
year  old.  The  growth  will  be  checked  less  than  if  al- 
lowed to  stand  two  years.  In  planting  the  trees  you 
want  the  land  thoroughly  prepared  by  plowing  and  har- 
rowing; then  lay  off  the  rows  with  the  two-horse  plow 


TIMBEK-GIIOWING.  227 

5io  as  to  have  the  1  arrows  deep  enough  for  the  roots; 
stretch  a  line  across,  or  if  you  prefer  cross  mark  with  a 
small  plow.  You  will  need  a  boy  to  hold  the  trees  and 
two  men  with  light  shovels  to  put  the  earth  to  the  roots. 
Two  men  and  a  boy  will  plant  about  an  acre  a  day  in 
this  way.  The  trees  will  get  well  established  and  make 
quite  a  growth  the  first  year,  but  it  is  best  to  cut  back 
c-lose  to  the  ground  earl}'  the  next  spring,  as  they  will 
make  a  strong  vigorous  growth  this  season  and  have 
straighter  trunks.  The}-  should  be  cultivated  for  two 
summers  after  which  they  will  occupy  the  land  so  that 
the  weeds  will  do  them  no  harm.  I  advise  planting 
four  by  four  feet,  as  the  growth  will  be  straighter  when 
planted  close.  At  about  four  years  after  planting  cut 
out  every  other  row.  They  will  be  large  enough  for 
bean  poles  and  occasionally  one  will  do  for  a  fence  stake. 
A  few  years  later,  when  large  enough  for  fence  stakes  or 
A'ineyard  poles,  cut  eveiy  other  one.  This  will  leave 
the  trees  eight  feet  apart  each  way,  or  680  to  the  acre. 
After  the  first  row  is  cut  out  sow  in  grass  and  pasture 
with  sheep  or  young  cattle. 

In  growing  Soft  Maple  seedlings,  3'ou  gather  the  seed 
as  soon  as  ripe  in  the  spring,  which  is  about  the  time 
istrawberries  ripen,  and  sow  at  once.  It  will  come  up  as 
readilv  as  beet  seed  and  grow  from  three  to  five  feet 
high  the  first  summer.  In  setting  these  in  plantations, 
unless  I  expected  to  get  sale  for  a  part  of  them  for  shade 
trees,  I  would  put  the  rows  eight  feet  apart  and  the  trees 
four.  A  double  row  of  these  planted  along  the  North 
and  West  of  exposed  fields  will  afford  protection  to  both 
crops  and  cattle,  and  in  prairie  countries,  it  is  said  that 
where  one-sixth  of  the  land  is  occupied  by  wind-breaks 
the  remainder  will  grow  enough  more  grain  to  pay  for 
it.     Where  a  wind-break  is  needed  for  the  buildings,  I 


228  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

would  advise  the  planting  of  evergreens.  Cedar  or  Ar- 
l3or  Vitse  are  probably  the  best.  They  will  be  a  great 
comfort  during  the  winds  of  winter  and  spring. 

The  Catalpa  has  been  largely  recommended  as  a  tim- 
ber tree  for  some  years  past,  but  my  own  experience  witii 
it  shows  that  though  it  maj^  be  a  valuable  timber  it  has 
qualities  which  render  it  inferior  to  the  Locust.  I  have 
been  growing  it  for  four  j^ears  and  I  lind  it  to  be  of 
much  slower  growth  than  the  latter,  and  very  much  in- 
clined to  branch  and  grow  scragg}'^,  Out  of  several 
hundred  which  I  have  growing  not  one  in  twenty  are 
even  passably  straight.  The  seed  of  Catalpa  is  light  as 
that  of  parsnip,  and  will  not  come  up  if  sown  deepl}^  or 
on  a  stiff  clay ;  and  as  the  young  trees,  when  they  are 
four  inches  high,  can  be  transplanted  as  easily  as  sweet 
potatoes,  I  would  recommend  that  the  seed  be  sown  in  a 
frame,  in  prepared  soil,  and  where  they  can  be  pro- 
tected. 

There  is  one  other  timber  which  I  have  had  no  ex- 
perience with,  but  which  would  undoubtedly  b}^  profit- 
able to  grow,  and  that  is  Black  Walnut.  The  seed 
must  be  planted  in  the  fall  and  it  is  well  to  plant  w^here- 
they  are  to  grow,  as  the  trees  do  not  bear  transplanting; 
well. 


CHAPTEK    XXI 


COUNTRY  HOMES. 

BY  MRS.  J.  C.  ALDRICH,  OF  FULTON  COUNTY,  OHIO. 

As  success  in  farming  depends  largely  upon  the  ar- 
rangement and  management  of  the  home,  certainly  a  vol- 
ume on  this  subject  would  be  very  incomplete  without  a 
chapter  specially  devoted  to  the  household.  And  even  a 
■chapter  seems  insufficient  for  mention  of  the  various 
topics  connected  with  this  department.  -      _ 

Home,  in  its  widest  sense,  signifies  "  all  that  pertains 
to  a  dwelling  place."  With"  this  broad  heading  for  our 
chapter,  such  a  throng  of  subjects  crowd  to  the  front 
and  demand  the  first  place  in  importance,  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  decide  which  shall  have  the  preference;  but  en- 
deavoring to  forget  for  the  moment  the  jostle  and  clamor 
for  pre-eminence  of  hygiene,  order,  cleanliness,  adorn- 
ment, etc.,  etc.,  we  will  go  back  of  the  home  for  our  be- 
ginning. 

A  farmer's  possessions  may  stretch  over  a  vast  area 
of  country;  his  herds  may  feed  on  a  thousand  hills;  he 
maj  enjoy  the  reputation  of  being  a  very  rich  man;  yet, 
the  impressions  made  on  his  character  by  his  home  and 
its  surroundings,  will  unmistakably  stamp  his  real  worth 
in  society.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  he  begins  right 
in  life.  We  would  by  no  means  tarnish  the  holy  senti- 
ment of  love  by  cold  calculations  in  profit  and  loss;  but 
w^ould  simply  suggest  that  all  mingle  a  little  common 
sense  in  matters  of  love.      For  instance,  a  man  should 


230  suocj:ss  in  farming. 

love  the  woman  he  is  capable  of  making  happy;  and  a 
woman  should  never  imagine  she  loves  the  man  whose 
business  she  despises. 

The  young  man  who  decides  to  be  a  farmer,  should 
select  for  his  companion  a  woman  every  way  fitted  for  a 
farmer's  wife.  We  do  not  mean  b}-  this  a  woman  of  the 
greatest  physical  endurance  and  the  least  mental  ca- 
pacity; the  largest  capacity-  for  acquiring  wealth  and 
the  least  desire  for  spending  it  on  artistic  tastes;  noth- 
ing of  the  kind.  But  a  woman  whose  heart  is  filled  with 
a  love  for  the  country,  who  goes  to  her  home  like  a  queen- 
to  her  throne,  proud  and  happy  and  independent;  one 
who  does  not  regard  domestic  life  as  degrading  drudg- 
ery, or  the  occupation  of  farming  as  an  inferior  one. 
Such  a  woman  would  help  to  build  up  a  home  that  would 
be  a  blessing  to  its  inmates  and  an  honor  to  the  farmer's 
vocation. 

But  we  have  to  admit  that  all  farm  homes  are  not 
models  of  perfection,  even  where  the  husband  and  wife 
are  united  in  their  love  for  the  business.  We  see  many 
farmers  with  large  farms  living  in  homes  destitute  of 
books,  paintings,  music,  everything  in  fact,  that  will  not 
yield  an  interest  in  dollars  and  cents.  In  most  cases  of 
this  kind  the  proprietor  has  commenced  life  with  limited 
means,  and  found  economy  and  retrenchment  more  easily 
practiced  in  and  around  the  house  than  am'where  else 
in  farming.  Certainly,  underdraining  must  be  exten- 
sively done  to  insure  the  growth  of  crops ;  long  lines  of 
fences  must  be  made  to  protect  them,  and  large  barns 
must  be  built  to  secure  them;  for  the  crops  of  the  farm 
are  the  money-producing  element,  and  must  not  be  neg- 
lected. Then  the  long  list  of  farm  implements  and  ma- 
chinery necessary  for  carrying  on  modern  farming  must 
be  filled  before  any  furniture  for  the  house,  beyond  the 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  231 

barest  necessities  can  be  afforded.  B}^  the  time  pros- 
perity becomes  established,  the  enforcement  of  rigid  fru- 
gality in  everything  pertaining  to  the  house  has  become 
a  habit  so  fixed  in  the  nature  of  both  husband  and  wife, 
that  long  after  the  necessity  for  its  practice  has  ceased, 
we  find  them  subjecting  every  proposed  improvement  to 
their  utilitarian  test,  and  opposing  any  outlay  for  beau- 
tifying their  home  as  a  needless  expense.*  What  their 
poverty  once  made  an  excusable  economy,  their  present 
circumstances  render  a  very  censurable  parsimon}^  Very 
often  the  surplus  that  should  be  expended  in  bringing- 
cheer  and  comfort  to  the  household,  is  deposited  in  the 
bank,  awaiting  a  favorable  opportunity  for  investing  in 
more  land. 

It  is  a  mistaken  notion  with  some,  that  they  must 
wait  until  they  have  grown  rich  before  the}"  begin  to 
gather  around  them  the  enjoyments  of  life. 

The  little  cabin  in  the  clearing  may  contain  all  the 
elements  of  refined  living;  the  evidences' of  intelligence 
and  culture  sit  as  gracefully  within  its  neatly  white- 
washed walls  as  in  the  mansions  of  the  wealthy;  ivies 
and  eglantines  cling  as  lovingly  to  its  rude  logs  as  to 
the  stately  columns  of  opulence;  and  the  fragrance  of 
flowers  floats  in  through  its  tin}^  windows  as  freely  as 


*Mrs.  Aldrich  has  opened  a  truth,  a  secret  to  many,  that  the 
disregard  to  taste  and  beauty  in  some  farm  homes  is  the  natu- 
ral result  of  long-continued  necessary  economy.  But  because 
natural,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  right.  It  is  a  pitiful  thing 
to  see  a  man  and  woman  give  all  the  strength  and  vigor  of  their 
lives  in  the  eff"ort  to  secure  an  "independence,"  and  when  they 
have  secured  it  find  they  have  forgotten  how  to  enjoy  it.  Yet 
such  a  sight  is  to  be  found  in  thousands  of  farm  homes  to-day  ; 
and  there  are  thousands  and  thousands  of  farmers  who,  hav- 
ing acquired  a  "competence,"  still  rise  up  early  and  work  late, 
and  pinch  and  deny  themselves  and  their  families  every  lux- 
ury, when  they  could  not  tell  what  they  were  saving  the  money 
for.  R.  s.  T. 


232  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

through  a  plate-glass  casement.  There  is  such  a  wealth 
of  material  around  eveiy  countiy  home  for  creations  of 
beaut}'.  The  scraggy,  gnarled  sticks  may  be  made  into 
rustic  work;  the  stones  lying  around  in  the  way,  into 
rockeries,  the  lichens  into  brackets  and  hanging  baskets 
to  receive  trailing  or  climbing  plants ;  even  a  great,  ugly 
stump  in  the  yard  may  be  made  a  thing  of  beauty  by 
hollowing  out  the  top,  filling  with  earth  and  planting 
with  trailing  vines.  There  is  no  need  of  waiting  for  the 
accumulation  of  riches  to  make  a  pleasant  home.  No 
matter  how  humble  your  beginnings,  take  to  your  home 
all  the  beauty  and  happiness  within  your  reach,  and  by 
the  time  you  are  ready  to  build  the  great  farm-house 
that  has  long  been  a  castle  in  the  air,  3' ou  will  find  so 
many  bright  memories  inwoven  with  your  life  in  the 
dear  little  cottage,  ^' so  man}-  precious  things  3- ou  can 
never  take  awa}","  that,  with  regret  you  will  move,  "out 
of  the  old  house  into  the  hew."* 

IN  AND  AROUND  THE  NEW  HOUSE. 

The  building  of  a  farm  house  should  be  the  subject  of 
serious  consideration.  You  are  not  building  for  a  renter 
who  can  leave  if  dissatisfied  when  the  first  crop  is  har- 
vested; but  3'ou  are  making  a  home   for  yourselves  and 


*The  family,  also,  that  has  learned,  during  the  days  of  hard- 
ship and  toil,  to  make  much  of  every  gleam  of  beauty,  of  every 
opportunity  for  intellectual  advancement,  of  everything  that 
leads  to  taste,  refinement  and  culture,  will  find  when  the  new 
home  is  secured,  that  they  have  not  in  the  making  lost  the 
faculty  for  enjoyment,  and  that  they  will  go  into  the  "new 
home"  and  all  its  improvements  as  though  they  had  been  all 
their  life  long  accustomed  to  its  enjoyments.  I  have  seen  ele- 
gant country  residences,  with  all  the  attractions  that  money 
could  buy,  in  which  the  older  members  of  the  family  spent 
their  time  in  the  kitchen  or  back  yard,  because  they  "felt  more 
at  home  there."  A  melancholy  confession  that  their  former 
home  had  been  all  kitchen  and  backyard,  and  that  they  felt  ill 
at  ease  in  a  home  of  refinement  and  beauty,  because  they  had 
never  been  accustomed  to  it.  e.  s.  t. 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  233 

perhaps  your  children  after  j^ou;  therefore  all  the  wis- 
dom of  the  family  should  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
work. 

The  shape  of  the  house  should  harmonize  with  the 
site  it  is  to  occup}^,  and  the  grounds  about  the  house 
must  of  course  bear  a  relation  to  the  size  of  the  farm.  If 
the  farm  is  large,  consecrate  a  generous  piece  of  land  to 
ornamental  purposes.  But  whatever  the  shape  or  size  of 
farm,  avoid  that  orthodox  walk,  straight,  and  narrow, 
hedged  in  with  shrubs,  from  the  gate  to  the  front  door; 
imd  avoid  that  greater  abomination,  a  narrow  front  yard. 
Nothing  helps  a  passer-by  to  form  a  more  correct  opin- 
ion of  the  inmates  than  the  surroundings  of  a  farm 
house.  A  farm  with  hundreds  of  broad  acres  stretching 
-away  in  the  distance,  laden  with  the  money-3d elding  grain, 
and  a  little  seven-by-nine  picketed  j^ard  in  front  is  a  sad 
sight.  One  cannot  but  fear  that  the  owner  is  a  narrow- 
:S0uled  man,  with  narrow  doctrines  and  narrow  ideas  of 
ithe  higher  nature's  demands.  If  3'our  farm  is  too  small 
to  devote  much  ground  to  merely  ornamental  trees  and 
shrubs,  grape  arbors,  cherry  and  pear  trees,  small  fruits, 
etc.,  can  occupy  space  at  the  sides,  and  will  not  harm 
the  roses  and  lilacs  if  they  are  not  separated  from  them 
by  a  "  paling."  But  leave  the  lawn  in  front  of  the  house 
smooth  and  unbroken  b}^  trees  of  any  kind.  Have  a 
piece  of  ground  to  one  side,  plowed  deep,  and  made  rich 
and  mellow  for  the  main  flower  garden.  Beds  —  not  too 
many  of  these — may  be  cut  in  the  lawn,  round,  oblong, 
or  any  fanciful  shape,  and  planted  with  dutch  bulbs. 
These  make  a  gorgeous  display  in  earl}^  spring.  The 
dullest  observer  will  turn  to  look  at  a  group  of  these 
gry-colored  flowers  in  their  emerald  setting  of  velvety 
grass,  and  remember  them  long  as  a  picture  of  beauty. 
•Between  the  rows  of  bulbs,  annuals  or  geraniums  may 


234  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMING, 

l)e  planted,  that  will  keep  up  a  show  of  flaming  color  until 
snow  falls.* 

Plant  plent}^  of  hardy  flowering  shrubs  and  perennials; 
these,  when  once  planted,  are  little  trouble,  and  aff'ord 
much  satisfaction.  In  making  your  selection,  be  care- 
ful to  get  a  large  proportion  of  fragrant  shrubs  and 
])lants.  The  very  breath  of  heaven  seems  wafted  to  us 
in  the  fragrance  of  flowers.  If  you  have  a  fine  old  forest 
tree  near  the  house,  spare  it — for  the  love  of  beauty 
spare  it.  You  can  supply  its  place  with  nothing  half  so 
grand. 

No  special  directions  can  be  given  for  the  approaches^ 
to  the  house,  as  the  shape  of  the  ground  and  the  space 
devoted  to  the  yard  must  decide  this  in  each  individual 
case.  Many  houses  are  built  so  near  the  road  as  to  pre- 
clude all  possibility  for  anything  but  a  straight  drive  at 
the  side.  This  is  a  great  mistake;  it  gives  the  house 
too  much  the  semblance  of  the  toll-gate  or  wayside  inn; 
while  a  fine  drive,  sweeping  up  under  over-hanging  shade 
trees,  always  gives  a  spacious,  villa-like  appearance  even 
to  an  ordinary  house.  The  walks  need  not  not  be  straight 
or  rectangular,  even  in  a  small  yard.     An  oblong  bed  in 


*  I  confess  I  am  not  particularly  in  favor  of  the  "  piece  of 
jjround"  for  a  flower  garden.  It  has  always  seeme<l  to  me  tliat 
the  growing  of  flowerw  in  afield,  like  corn,  should  be  left  to  the 
professional  flower-grower,  and  that  the  flowers  about  tlie 
home  should  have  a  "fitness"  to  the  place  where  they  are  found.. 
I  would  as  soon  tliink  of  taking  all  the  brackets,  windoAV-ciu-- 
tains,  pictures,  mottoes,  vases,  shells,  fancy  work,  etc.  about 
the  house  to  one  large  room,  and  arrange  them  artistically 
there,  as  put  my  flowers  in  one  large  "  flower  garden."  Flow- 
ers are  the  outward  adornments  of  the  home,  as  the  articles  I 
have  named  are  the  inward  adornments.  A  small,  round  Ited 
here,  an  oval  one  there,  some  choice  flowers  under  this  win- 
dow, a  flowering  slirubby  that — a  little  edging  of  bloom,  found 
unexpectedly — would  be  my  ideal.  But  Mrs.  Aldrich's  taste 
is  good,  and  she  may  have  better  judgment  in  this  than  I. 

R.  s.  T. 


\ 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  235' 

front  of  the  house,  set  with  foliage  or  flowering  plants — 
the  path  curving  to  the  right  and  left  of  this,  one  going 
to  the  front  door,  and  the  other  passing  round  to  the 
sitting-room  or  kitchen,  is  very  prett}^ 

Do  not  allow  the  back  yard  to  become  a  A'er3^  Tophet 
for  the  whole  place.  Allow  no  accumulations  there  not 
directly  connected  with  the  conveniences  of  the  house 
The  back  walks,  being  matters  of  convenience,  may  con- 
nect directl}'  as  possible  with  the  various  out-buildings. 
Let  them  be  built  of  plank,  or  some  substantial  material^ 
and  safel}^  above  "high  water  mark;"  this  will  secure- 
you  against  "stormy  weather"  in  the  house  during  a 
muddy  time.* 

There  are  evidences  of  neglect  about  some  country 
homes  worse,  even,  than  the  utter  absence  of  all  orna- 
mentation. Among  the  most  odious  of  these  is  the 
stench  from  hog-pens,  hen-houses,  etc.,  that  laden  all  the 
atmosphere  about  the  place  with  their  disgusting  odors^ 
This  is  inexcusable.  Some  attempt  to  apologize  for  the 
negligence  by  saying  that  during  the  hot,  busy  season 
they  have  no  time  for  the  necessary  purifications.  We 
all  understand  that  cleanliness  is  the  best  disinfectant  in. 


*Mrs.  Aldrich  lives  in  a  timber  country,  and  naturally  sug- 
gests plank ;  but  after  a  very  extensive  observation  in  all  sec- 
tions, I  know  of  no  better  material  to  suggest.  Gravel,  even, 
where  it  can  be  had,  is  liable  to  track  into  the  house ;  tan-bark 
stains  the  carpets ;  flag  stones,  unless  much  smoother  than  can 
usually  be  obtained,  hold  water  and  mud  in  wet  weather,  and 
are  always  unpleasant  to  walk  on.  Brick  walks  are  expensive 
to  lay,  and  in  muddy  countries  troublesome  to  keep  in  order. 
Get  3  by  3  studdings,  hard  wood,  lay  them  213'  feet  apart  from 
out  to  out ;  set  them  firmly  on  stones  or  brick ;  get  full  inch 
lumber,  6  or  8  inches  wide",  and  sawed  at  the  mill  into  3-foot 
lengths,  and  you  can  easily  make  a  walk  that  will  always  be 
clean  and  comfortable,  and'^will  last  for  years.  In  laying  your 
boards,  if  green,  put  close  together;  if  seasoned,  leave  a  quar- 
ter-inch crack ;  put  two  8-penny  nails  in  each  end  of  a  board ;; 
and  as  soon  as  aboard  breaksor  gets  loose,  repair  it.     r.  s.  t. 


^36  SUCCESS    IN  FARMING. 

use;  but  a  penny's  worth  of  copperas  sprinkled  on  and 
iiround  the  unclean  spot,  will  effectually  neutralize  its 
loathsome  exhalations,  and  any  one  may  avail  himself 
of  this  escape  from  allowing  his  place  to  become  a  pub- 
lic nuisance. 

Another  is  having  no  means  of  reaching  the  house 
with  a  team  save  through  the  barn-yard,  which  in  such 
'<cases  is  strewn  with  all  kinds  of  farm  implements,  from 
the  new  self-binding  reaper,  down  through  all  conditions 
*of  dilapidation  to  the  most  absolutely  worthless  trash. 
After  a  meandering  route  over,  around  and  between 
these,  you  are  halted  /it  the  kitchen  door,  where  pigs, 
ducks,  etc.,  mix  with  their  own  filth  that  thrown  from 
the  kitchen  in  the  form  of  slops  and  refuse  of  all  kinds. 
Finding  here  their  element,  they  grunt  and  waddle 
about  with  perfect  impunity,  evidently  considering them- 
^selves  part  and  parcel  of  the  family.  Holland  saw  a 
great  similaritr  lietweeu  hogs  and  human  beings,  but 
we  have  no  right  to  cultivate  this  similarity  by  such 
-close  association,  and  we  have  no  right  to  disgust  the 
senses  with  such  loathsome  sights  and  scents  about  a 
human  dwelling.  We  would  gladl}^  forget  such  places; 
but  they  exist,  and  instead  of  turning  from  them  in 
^silence,  we  should  point  out  their  imperfections  and  en- 
deavor to  bring  them  up  to  higher  ground. 

The  idea  that  farmers  and  their  families  have  small  ca- 
pacity for  enjoying  the  elegancies  of  life,  and  therefore 
need  little,  has  so  long  been  popular  among  professional 
men,  that  many  farmers  have  come  to  believe  it  them- 
selves; and  the  habit  of  being  satisfied  with  the  husks  of 
their  labor  while  some  one  else  receives  the  kernel,  clings 
to  them  like  mildew  to  linen,  and  regarding  themselves 
as  a  kind  of  intermediate  beings  between  the  animals 
the}'  feed  and  the  men  they  vote  for,  they  imagine  rude 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  237 

living  and  coarse  manners  more  in  keeping  with  their 
occupation  than  the  comforts  and  refinements  of  a  w.ell 
arranged  home.  Siicli  need  missionaries  sent  among^ 
them  to  proclaim  the  gospel  of  the  grange.* 

Turning  from  these  unpleasant  phases  of  country  life, 
we  will  go  back  to  the  pleasant  home  where  all  love  to 
loiter  under  the  pleasant  shade  trees,  among  the  flowers, 
and  shrubs,  and  beautiful  walks.  But  we  go  into  the 
house  at  once.  We  have  a  difficult  task  to  perform,. 
Those  who  have  alwa}- s  been  making  the  old  home  pleas- 
ant and  beautiful,  come  into  the  new  home  with  culti- 
ted  tastes  and  well  informed  judgment  in  all  matters  of 
furnishing  and  arrangement;  these  will  need  no  help  of 
ours ;  we  trust,  however,  such  will  be  patient,  and  not 
consider  as  useless  detail  our  efforts  to  help  those  who 
have  been  waiting  to  move  into  the  "new  house"  before 
they  commenced  a  S3'stematic  course  of  furnishing. 

As  it  is  the  most  common  way  of  building  in  the  coun- 
try, we  will  suppose  the  house  is  an  "  upright-with-a- 
wing"  and  an  "L"  extending  back  from  the  wing,  (we 
would  suggest  that  the  "  L"  be  rather  disproportionate 
in  length,  or  the  proprietor  ma^^  be  required  to  build  an 
addition  for  a  summer  kitchen.)  This  furnishes  conve- 
nient space  for  a  farm  house,  and  though  not  as  elegant  in. 

*It  can  hardly  be  thought  strange  that  so  many  farmers 
have  low  opinions  of  themselves  and  of  their  calling  when  we 
remember  that  from  time  immemorial  the  farmer  has  been 
supj)lied  with  literature  prepared  for  him  by  those  who  look. 
down  upon  him.  His  babies  are  supplied  with  story-books 
which  tell  of  the  ''rough,  ignorant, country  boy  ;" his  boys  are 
fed  on  wonderful  tales  of  how  someone,  though  only  a  farmer's 
boy,  had  gone  to  town  and  become  a  gentleman,  and  when 
he  gets  to  be  a  man  he  takes  a  political  paper,  edited  and  man- 
aged by  men  who  regard  the  farmers  as  so  many  "  head"  to  be- 
brought  up  to  the  polls  and  voted.  Any  wonder  we  find  many 
farmers  who  seem  incapable  of  rising  t"o  a  due  appreciation  of 
their  rights  and  of  the  dignity  of  their  calling  ?  k.  s.  t.. 


238  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

iippearance  as  a  square  lioiise,  it  has  the  advantage  of 
<?osting  less  for  brp.ckets,  columns,  etc.,  without  which  a 
square  house  would  bean  unsightl}^  object. 

With  this  style  of  house  we  usually  dispense  with  the 
convenience  of  a  hall,  but  the  sitting-room  opens  on  a  spa- 
cious veranda,  and  all  the  glory  of  the  front  yard  is  con- 
tinually spread  before  the  famil}^  which  we  think  pleas- 
unter  than  having  the  sitting-room  in  the  rear  of  the 
parlor. 

Let  the  veranda  be  one  very  paradise.  First  impres- 
sions are  most  lasting,  and  while  one  is  waiting  here  for 
admission,  3'our  home  is  being  photographed  in  his 
niemor}^  by  these  beautiful  surroundings.  How  difter- 
ent  the  picture  will  be  from  that  which,  if,  by  the  "shut- 
iip-go-to-the-back-door"  look  of  things  at  the  front,  he  is 
compelled  to  go  round  to  the  kitchen  to  gain  admission, 
and  work  his  way  in  between  wash-tubs  and  through 
the  steam  of  boiling  clothes,  to  a  darkened  sitting-room, 
destitute  of  any  object  to  engage  his  attention.  We  must 
enter  a  protest  against  this  shutting  up  of  the  whole 
front  of  the  house  practiced  by  some. 

Since  the  advent  of  screens,  no  excuse  remains  for  fam- 
ilies cloistering  themselves  in  this  perpetual  shadow  and 
gloom.  Screens  are  not  expensive  luxuries,  and  cer- 
tainly for  their  price,  no  man  would  ;illow  himself  and 
famil}^  to  be  tortured  through  the  day  with  flies,  and  of 
■evenings  be  bitten  and  stung  by  mosquitoes  and  all  man- 
ner of  moths  and  beetles  that  swirl  in  and  swoop  down 
^n  unprotected  victims.  Let  the  house  be  provided  with 
screens,  and  throw  open  the  doors  and  blinds  and  let  in 
the  joy-giving  sun-light  and  the  fresh,  pure  air.* 


*  A  dark  house  is  seldom  a  clean  house,  and  never  a  heal- 
thy one.  Sun-light  and  air  are  Nature's  disinfectants  and 
tonics.     If  the  light  reveals  dirt  and  dust,  so  much  the  more 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  239 

Make  the  front  door  look  so  pleasantly  in\4ting  that 
Tisitors  will  knovr  they  are  expected  to  enter  there.  Let 
an  ivy  arch  the  door-way  with  its  rich,  glossy  green,  or 
place  a  Speciosa  Fuchsia  on  a  bracket,  and  train  its  long, 
vine-like  branches  above  the  door,  and  it  will  gladden 
j'ou  all  summer  with  its  masses  of  drooping  buds  and 
blossoms.  If  your  porch  is  shady,  plant  the  graceful 
Adlumia;  it  is  the  ver3'  lace  work  of  all  climbers,  with 
its  long  vines  bearing  such  an  abundance  of  fringy  fol- 
iage and  delicate  flowers  3^ou  may  festoon  the  entire 

veranda. 

Let  the  furnishing  of  the   sitting-room  be  such  as  to 

sustain  the  good  impressions  made  by  outside  appear- 
ances— tasteful,  substantial,  and  for  the  use  and  happi- 
ness of  the  family. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  give  directions  in  reference 
to  styles  of  paper  and  carpets.  The  prevailing  styles  at 
time  of  purchasing  must  be  the  guide.  Now  rich,  dark 
colors  for  both  are  sought,  while  a  few  years  ago  neutral 
tints  for  paper  were  recommended  by  good  authority, 
and  a  soft,  gray  ground,  scattered  over  with  wreaths  of 
roses  and  delicate  flowers,  was  a  ladj^'s  ideal  of  beaut}' 
in  a  carpet.  No  one  need  regret  having  bought  when 
this  style  prevailed,  for  it  is  pretty  and  always  will  be. 

The  sitting-room  carpet  should  be  no  flimsy,  cheap  af- 
fair, and  better  a  pretty,  bright,  rag-carpet  than  an  in- 
grain or  brussels,  if  such  a  one  would  cause  you  to  worry 
about  its  being  spoiled  by  every-day  use.  Make  this 
room  especially  bright  and  cheery.  This  is  the  hearth- 
stone, the  family  altar,  where  all  come  at  evening  to  gather 
rest  and  strength  and  blessing.  Let  the  table  be  fur- 
need  for  the  light.  The  farmer  is  learning  that  it  is  ruinous 
to  keep  stock  in  dark  stables  ;  but  some  have  not  yet  found 
out  that  the  family  is  entitled  to  as  much  thoughtful  care  as 
the  letock.  R.  s.  T, 


240  SUCCESS  IN  FARMING. 

nished  with  books  and  papers  and  magazines  of  sterling 
worth,  a  stereoscope  and  views,  suitable  games ;  in  short, 
whatever  elevates,  entertains  and  develops  the  mind, 
should  have  a  place  here.  Have  plenty  of  easy-chairs — ■■ 
not  necessarily  expensive  ones,  but  such  as  will  give 
comfort  and  ease  to  the  occupant.  These  may  be  made 
of  old  chairs  bottomed  with  coffee- sacking  and  covered 
with  pretty  red  calico.  It  has  been  said  that  red  is  the 
glor}^  of  color.  We  would  have  red  predominate  in  the 
sitting-room.  Everything  looks  bright  and  warm  in  its 
glow.  Let  the  table-spread  be  red,  the  couch  and  rug 
be  lighted  up  with  it,  and  whatever  hanging,  fancy  work,, 
such  as  an  air-castle  or  a  balloon  for  this  room,  should 
be  trimmed  with  red;  tidies  for  the  chairs,  and  mats  for 
the  table,  should  be  white,  as  they  require  frequent, 
washing,  and  would  be  prettier  on  the  red  than  any 
color. 

Do  not  commit  the  blunder  so  often  noticed,  of  carry- 
ing all  the  famil}^  pictures  and  cheap  chromos,  in  fact, 
everything  in  the  shape  of  ornament,  to  the  parlor,  leav- 
ing the  rest  of  the  walls  to  stare  at  you  in  naked  ugli- 
ness, while  the  parlor  presents  a  heterogeneous  collec- 
tion, varied  and  contrasting  as  the  contents  of  a  Yankee 
peddler's  wagon. 

The  famih^  pictures  are  of  course  dearer  to  the  family 
than  any  one  else,  and  should  therefore  be  appropriately 
grouped  in  the  sitting-room  or  family  sleeping-rooms, 
where  their  dear  remembered  faces  will  beam  on  those 
who  love  them  with  such  tenderness  as  to  make  them 
<][uite  forget  the  old-fashioned  clothes  and  oddly  combed 
hair,  which  often  prove  very  amusing  to  Adsitors. 

There  are  some  very  pretty  chromos — they  are  mostty 
copies  of  historic  paintings,  and  through  them  we  may 
g'ain  some  idea  of  the  original — for  this  reason  we  gladly 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  241 

give  them  place  in  the  sitting-room.  The  best  of  these 
may  be  taken  to  the  parlor  if  3^011  have  no  oil  paintings 
or  steel  engravings.  Not  many  farm-houses  are  very 
rich  in  works  of  art,  but  farmers'  wives  must  make  this 
a  part  of  their  religion:  to  feel  satisfied  with  things 
within  their  reach — hut  reach  as  far  as  you  can  in  the 
way  of  advancement. 

In  buving,  do  not  select  the  flashy,  high-colored,  liarn- 
3ard  scenes  so  common.  Nature  furnishes  for  us  better 
l)ictures  of  this  kind;  but  get  something  good  of  its  class 
that  will  bring  a  lesson  with  it.* 

Nothing  is  more  perplexing  to  the  housewife  in  the 
way  of  furnishing  than  the  matter  of  curtains,  for  st^de  is^ 
so  vacillating  and  changeful  in  this  item.  If  she  at- 
tempts to  follow  this  fickle  dame  in  this,  as  in  many 
other  things,  she  will  be  kept  on  the  rack  much  of  the 
time,  besides  finding  on  her  hands  a  greater  sup- 
ply of  curtains  than  her  means  will  warrant  in  getting. 
A  better  way  is  to  decide  that  "  a  thing  of  beauty  is  a 
joy  forever" — get  what  she  thinks  pretty  and  be  satis- 
fied with  it,  no  matter  what  Mrs.  Grundy  says.  This 
rule  of  course  will  not  appl}^  to  ladies'  bonnets;  but  in 
the  matter  of  furnishing  a  farm-house  is  better  than  the 
constant  worry  about  things  getting  out  of  style. 

We  think  for  the  sitting-room  lace  is  prettier  than 
"  cheese-cloth''  or  cotton  flannel.  It  gives  a  sweet,  ^ivj 
look  to  the  room.  Do  not  hang  your  curtains  flat  against 
the  window,  but  fasten  to  a  cornice.     If  j^ou  cannot  af- 


''•■  I  sometimes  see  farm-houses  in  which  the  walls  are  al- 
most hidden  with  a  mass  of  cheap  prints,  costing  little  indi- 
vidually, but  enough  collectively  to  pay  for  one  or  two  really 
handsome  pictures  in  good  frames  The  overdone  mass  of 
cheap  prints  gives  an  idea  of  cheapness  ;  the  one  or  two  bet- 
ter pictures  give  an  im.pression  of  taste  and  refinement. 

E.  s.  T. 

16 


242  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

ford  to  buy  this,  make  one;  make  a  shelf  six  inches 
wide,  round  the  outside  corners,  and  fasten  substantially 
to  the  top  of  the  casing;  tack  the  curtain  to  this.  Puff 
lace  with  cambric  (the  color  to  match  other  fancy  arti- 
cles in  the  room)  and  sew  on  pasteboard  the  proper 
length,  six  inches  wide.  Tack  the  lower  edge  of  this  to 
the  curtain  and  shelf.  Behind  this,  on  the  shelf,  3'ou 
may  ^et  a  dish  of  tradescantia  filled  with  water,  and  its 
glossy  leaves  drooping  down  over  the  lace,  is  very  pretty ; 
or  a  long  piece  of  Madeira  vine  may  be  broken  off,  the 
end  inserted  in  a  bottle  of  water,  which  may  be  hung  un- 
der the  edge  of  the  curtain,  and  the  vine  carried  up  and 
across  the  top,  and  trail  down  the  other  side,  thus  arch- 
ing the  window.  Both  these  plants  will  keep  bright  and 
beautiful  as  long  as  you  keep  up  the  supply  of  water — 
will  throw  out  new  roots  and  grow,  not  seeming  to  miss 
the  parent  roots.* 

Set  apart  one  room  for  a  librarj^ — the  one  at  the  end 
of  the  wing,  usually  occupied  as  a  bed-room  in  this  style 
of  house,  is  convenient.  You  may  not  be  able  to  bestoiv 
much  on  its  furnishing  at  first — a  book-case,  table,  chairs, 
and  supply  of  stationery  will  do  for  a  beginning;  but 
being  set  apart,  it  becomes  a  sort  of  altar  to  the  educa- 
tional advancement  of  the  family,  and  each  member  will 
love  to  bring  to  it  offerings  of  books,  curiosities,  speci- 
mens of  natural  history,  geology,  entomolog^^  etc.,  and 
.soon  it  will  become  a  very   treasure  house,  in  which  all 


-  Among  the  furniture  of  the  sitting-room,  in  every  family 
where  there  is  any  taste  for  music,  I  should  give  the  organ  a 
proiuinent  place.  iNothing  so  binds  together  a  family,  or 
makes  home  so  home-like,  as  music.  When  brothers,  sis- 
ters, father  and  mother  can  gather  around  the  organ  and 
join  their  voices  in  tbe  "  social  joys  of  song,"  it  forms  a  won- 
derful home  tie,  and  awakens  in  every  heart  a  love  for 
liome.  K.  s.  T. 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  243 

arc  equally  interested,  and  through  which  a  vast  im- 
provement will  come  to  the  family. 

The  library  may  have  a  hay-window,  and  being  con- 
nected with  the  sitting-room  by  double  doors,  can  be 
<?asily  warmed,  and  thus  fitted  to  serve  the  double  pur- 
pose of  library  and  conservatory  on  a  small  scale;  and 
this,  too,  would  realize,  in  many  cases,  the  wife's  dream 
of  years — a  place  to  keep  her  plants  where  she  could  en- 
joy their  fragrance  and  bloom  while  winter  holds  revel 
without.  (Too  often  the  wife's  wishes  in  these  little  mat- 
ters are  considered  unimportant,  and  she  is  doomed  to 
await  her  entrance  into  the  "  home  not  made  with  hands" 
to  realize  her  visions  of  beauty.)* 

As  we  have  no  hall,  here  must  be  a  niche  somewhere, 
either  in  library  or  sitting-room,  for  a  hat-rack. 

THE  PARLOR 

We  deem  of  secodary  importance  compared  with  the 
sitting-room;  secondary,  because  a  family  can  get  along 
very  nicely  without  a  parlor,  while  they  cannot  without 
a  sitting-room.  In  parlor  furnishings  there  is  a  greater 
demand  for  money  and  less  for  ingenuity  than  elsewhere, 
as  home-made  articles  here  seem  rather  out  of  place. 

The  different  pieces  of  furniture  must  not  war  witk 
each  other  in  point  of  costliness;  an  expensive  table  with 
poor  chairs  is  in  bad  taste,  and  other  things  being  good, 
a  shabby  carpet  may  spoil  the  effect  of  all.  A  "  parlor- 
set"  is  necessary.  Variety  is  pleasing  in  some  places, 
but  indulged  too  far  in  the  parlor  suggests  auction  sales. 

Let  the  books  and  pictures  be  well  chosen,  and  good 
as  the  finances  ef  the  family  will  warrant.  Do  not  look 
so  much  to  show  in  these  articles  as  to  intrinsic  value. 
No  matter  how  costly  the  frame,  a  daub  will  only  violate 

*  There  is  no  place  where  fiowei*s  do  so  well  as  in  a  room 
a«.^oining  one  in  which  a  constant  fire  is  kept,  e.  s.  t. 


244:  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

the  cultivated  taste  that  could  enjoy  an  exquisite  piece- 
without  any  frame.  Harmony,  and  a  quiet,  unobtrusive 
elegance  is  more  satisfying  to  the  refined  mind  than  glare 
and  ostentation. 

THE  DINING-ROOM, 

if  a  separate  apartment,  needs  little  more  than  an  ex- 
tension table  and  chairs,  with  convenient  connections 
with  china  closet,  pantry  and  kitchen.  If  the  dining- 
room  7nust  be  in  connection  with  either  sitting-room  or 
kitchen,  and  the  latter  is  large,  let  it  be  there,  in  the 
winter  at  least;  and  doubtless  the  parties  most  inter- 
ested, the  farmer's  wives,  would  sa}-  let  it  remain  there 
still  through  the  summer,  and  let  the  cook-stove  be 
moved  to  a  summer  kitchen.  This  is  a  mooted  question, 
and  one  on  which  farmers  and  their  wives  more  gener 
ally  differ  than  any  other. 

The  theory  that  supplv  follows  demand — for  instance,, 
man's  needs  demanded  a  thumb,  and  therefore  a  thumb 
grew — may  be  true  in  some  things,  but  the  masculine 
patience  has  never  A'et  seemed  to  reach  the  demand  for 
moving  stoves,  and  the  veiy  terror  that  over-shadows 
him  when  he  receives  notice  that  such  a  task  4s  before 
him  does  not  indicate  very  rapid  development  in  that 
direction. 

We  see  no  way  out  of  the  dilemma  except  that  a 
dining-room  be  made  a  permanent  fixture  in  the  house 
in  addition  to  the  sitting-room,  else  the  proprietor  will 
probabty  be  required  to  go  on  moving  the  stove  out 
ever}^  summer,  until  he  completes  his  allotted  three  score 
years  and  ten. 

The  converting  of  a  sitting-room  three  times  a  day 
into  a  dining-room,  and  as  many  times  back  to  its  origi- 
nal state,  implies  a  great  deal  of  useless  work,  and  labor- 
saving  in  the  house-work  on  a  farm  is  important.     But 


COUNTRY    HOMES  245 

-while  we  would  most  earnestly  advocate  doing  away  with 
unnecessary  work,  do  not  suppose  we  think  it  cf  little 
consequence  where  and  how  farmers  are  fed.  The  good 
or  ill  breeding  of  a  family  is  more  plainl^^  marked  at  meal- 
time than  any  other  hour  of  the  da}^,  and  we  would  b}" 
no  means  under-value  the  influence  of  pains  taking  m 
the  dining-room.  We  would  have  the  table  laid  with 
care — with  clean  linen,  shining  dishes  and  cutler}^ — have 
the  food  skillfully  cooked  and  served  in  different  dishes, 
rand  the  different  likes  of  the  family  properly  regarded 
that  all  might  relish  their  meal.  The  room  clean  and 
;sweet  and  free  from  flies.  There  is  no  reason  why  a 
farmer's  dinner  table  should  not  indicate  refinement  and_ 
culture  in  his  familv;  certainly  there  is  nothino-  in  the 
vocation  that  necessarily  makes  tlidse  felil)wino:  it  coarse 
iand  nude  *  .^"- 

It  is  the  improper  management  of  some  farms  and 
farm  households  that  disgust  so  many,  persons  with  the 
b u siness.  The  uncouth  manners,  disregard  of  personal 
appeai'ence  and  inattention  to  intellectual  improvements 
sometimes  found  among  farmers,  is  .accepted  as  natural 
conditions  of  and  inseparably  connected  with  farm  life. 

"Those  dirty  farmers"  that  are  such  a  terror  to  some 
:are  no  dread  to  the  systematic  house-keeper  When  the 
great  dinner  bell  "calls  them  from  labor  to  refresh 
ment,"  she  knows  that  they  will  enter  the  back  porch 
(or  a  room  done  off  in  the  wood-house  for  the  purpose,) 
■^diere  plenty  of  soft  water,  wash-basins,  soap,  towels, 
<*ombs,  ^brush  and  looking  glass,  are  all  conveniently  ar- 

*A  separate  dining-room  is  an  excellent  thing  when  made 
•comfortable,  but  on  a  chilly  day  I  would  rather  eat  in  the 
kitchen  in  comfort,  than  be  invited  out  to  a  stately  dining- 
room  without  fire,  and  shiver  over  your  meal  with  the  impres- 
■sion  that  your  host  keeps  the  room  cold  for  fear  her  guests 
should  linger  too  long  at  the  table  and  eat  too  much.     k.  s.  t. 


246  succp:ss  in  farming. 

ranged.  A  long  case — not  necessarily  ornamental — 
holding  slippers  for  each,  and  dressing-gowns  or  clean 
linen  ulsters  hanging  above.  Everything  necessary  for 
making  them  tidy  is  ready  for  their  use,  and  instead  of 
its  being  considered  a  trouble,  a  man  very  soon  regards 
it  as  a  luxury  to  put  off  his  soiled  boots  and  rest  his  feet 
in  fresh  stockings  and  slippers,  and  out  of  respect  for 
wife  and  daughters  he  gladly  dons  a  garment  that  will 
make  him  presentable  at  table,  and  feels  more  self-re- 
spect for  having  done  so.  His  example  is  "a  law  unto 
his  household,"  and  his  men  follow  it  as  a  matter  of 
course 

THE  KITCHEN  AND  PANTKY 

of  the  farm-house  constitute  a  very  important  depart- 
ment. By  too  man}'  the  kitchen  is  considered  unim- 
portant. Any  kind  of  a  room  with  any  kind  of  furnish- 
ing will  do  for  the  kitchen.  But  the  kitchen  is  the 
grand  laboratory  of  the  whole  domestic  economy  of  the 
farm.  A  man's  successful  farming  depends  more  on  the 
management  of  his  kitchen  than  on  the  acreage  of  his 
wheat.  Lack  of  system  here  is  felt  iu  every  department 
of  the  farm  work.  If  half  an  hour  is  lost  in  the  morn- 
ing on  account  of  inconvenient  location  of  pantry,  cel- 
lar-way and  wood-shed,  (or  w^orse,  poor  wood,)  and  want 
of  proper  utensils  for  cooking,  and  there  are  four  men^ 
that  lost  time  is  equivalent  to  two  houi-s  for  one  man. 
For  one  3^ear  this  makes  a  sum  of  sixty-two  and  a  half 
days.  Allowing  $1.25  per  day  for  board  and  wages^ 
which  is  a  low  average  for  the  year,  Ave  have  an  amount 
that  would  go  far  in  suppljing  conveniences  for  the 
kitchen;  then  multiply  this  by  the  years  that  this  waste 
goes  on  and  all  will  be  convinced  that  it  is  better  to  be- 
gin right.  Not  the  least  thing  to  be  considered  in  this 
useless  waste,  is  the  youth,  strength  and  health  ofthe  wife^ 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  247 

It  is  bad  econom}'  to  do  without  anything  that  will 
expedite  or  make  easier  the  labors  of  this  department. 
Be  satisfied  with  nothing  but  a  good  stove  or  range  with 
reservoir,  and  all  the  modern  contrivances  for  cooking. 
A  good  washing-machine,  wringer,  nickle-plated  smooths 
ing-irons  and  fluter  are  necessary  for  the  laundr}^ 
Have  the  wood-box  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  filled 
from  the  wood-shed,  which  should  always  be  supplied 
with  o^ood  wood.*  Let  the  well  and  cistern  be  con ven- 
iently  near,  and  on  a  level  with  the  floor  if  practicable. 
The  pantry  should  be  large  enough  to  accomodate  a 
cooking  table  supplied  with  drawers  for  spices,  rolling- 
pin,  pie-tins,  etc.  Near  this  should  be  kept  the  flour 
and  sugar  boxes,  that  the  baking  may  be  all  prepared 
here,  away  from  the  stove  and  with  as  few  steps  as  pos- 
sible. 

Let  convenience  be  the  ruling  thought  in  all  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  culinary  department,  and 

LET    PURITY    BE    THE    LAW. 

No  amount  of  show  and  pretence  in  the  front  part  of 
the  house  can  conceal  bad  house-keeping  here.  Mouldy 
cupboards  will  send  their  little  messengers  on  the  air 
to  whisper  the  secret  to  visitors  the  moment  they  enter 
the  house.  Sour  or  decaying  a  egetables  may  be  out  of 
sight,  but  their  presence  is  none  the  less  certain  when 
their  ofi'ensive  smells  are  floating  through  ever}^  room. 

The  habit  of  boiling  cabbage  and  turnips  and  pork, 
and  frying  onions  and  burning  the  roast  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  scent-distributing  practices  of  the  earless 


*This  latter  is  a  very  convenient  arrangement  and  saves  both 
labor  and  dirt.  The  wood-shed  must,  of  course,  adjoin  the 
kitchen;  a  hole  is  cut  through  the  wall,  and. the  wood-box 
built  in  Mdth  a  portion  extending  into  the  wood-shed.  A  tight 
lid  over  the  part  in  the  wood-shed  prevents  cold  air  from  draw- 
ing through.  E.  s..  T. 


248  SL'CCESS    IN    FAKMING. 

house-keeper,  with  the  doors  leading  to  the  other  rooms 
jxll  open,  is  perfectly  incompatible  with  pure  air  in  the 
house.  These  scents  gather  strength  by  age,  and  on 
entering  some  dwellings  you  arc  met  by  a  combination 
of  all  in  one  disgusting  odor.  While  the  lady  meets 
you  with  a  self-satisfied  air  perfectl}^  surprising  to  you. 
You  wonder  she  is  not  throwing  open  the  windows  and 
scattering  disnifectants.  She  has,  in  fact,  become  so 
inured  to  breathing  this  vitiated  atmosphere  that  she  is 
wholly  unconscious  of  anything  wrong.  She  does  not 
know  that  her  curtains,  her  carpets — aye,  the  Yer3^  walls 
about  her,  and  her  own  clothing,  are  all  saturated  with 
and  giving  of  this  compound  effluvium. 

Always  have  the  cook-room  well  ventilated  and  the 
doors  closed  between  that  and  the  rest  of  the  housei  * 

While  we  are  treating  of  this  disagreeable  subject  of 
uni)leasant  odors,  another  prc'^seiits  itself  more  inexcusa- 
ble, more  utterly  loathsome  and  intolerable,  than  all 
.other: — Personal  uncleanliness. 

Some  say  cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness.  We  think 
godliness  would  have  a  better  chance  to  work  on  the 
heart  of  a  clean  man  that  a  filthy  one;  therefore,  we  say 
to  the  philanthropist — buy  soap,  and  build  plenty  of 
])ath-houses,  and  your  work  for  the  sins  of  men  will  be 
blessed  with  a  more  abundant  harvest. 

The  practice  of  wearing  the  same  underclothing,  night 


*The  organ  of  smell  was  given  to  us  partly  that  we  might  en- 
joy the  fragrance  of  flowers,  but  largely  as  a  protection.  A 
bad  smell  is  always  the  sign  of  impurity,  and  impurity  is  the 
advance  guard  of  disease  and  death.  The  only  proper  smell 
about  home  or  person  is  no  smell  at  all,  and  we  should  keep 
our  noses  trained  by  pure  associations  so  that  they  will  be  ever 
ready  to  give  warning  of  the  impure.  Pure  air  and  plentj^  of 
it  and  sunlight  and  cleanliness  are  the  best  disinfectants.  If' 
after  a  day  spent  in  the  pure  air  of  the  fields  on  entering  the 
house  you  notice  a  stale  odor  hanging  to  the  rooms,  be  sure 
there  is  something  unclean  there.  k.  s.  t. 


COUJJTKY    HOMES.  249 

and  day,  for  two  weeks,  without  giving  the  body  a  single 
ablution  in  the  time,  must  result  in — to  use  the  mildest 
term — concentrated  impurity.  The  body  continually 
throwing  off  through  the  pores  the  offensive  exhalations 
of  the  system,  at  the  rate  of  a  pound  a  day,  is  loading 
the  clothing  with  these  fetid  odors;  and  if  thej^  are 
given  no  chance  to  escape,  hy  change  at  night,  the  ac- 
cumulation must  be  absorbed,  exhaled  and  reabsorbed 
until  clothing  and  person  become  mutual  contaminators, 
and  both  an  offence  in  the  nostrils  of  good  society. 

The  farm  home  should  be  the  best  home;  therefore, 
let  every  country  home  be  provided  with  a  bath-room, 
and  every  child  be  taught,  from  baby-hood,  that  com- 
mon decency  demands  personal  cleanliness. 

THE    SLEEPING    ROOMS 

though  last  mentioned,  are  not  less  important  m  their 
'  oflit^es^and  arrangement  than  those  preceding  them.  As 
tlie  arrangement  of  one  will  apply  to  all  in  the  main,  we 
will  speak  more  particularly  of  the  guest  chamber.  If 
econom}^  must  be  exercised  in  the  furnishing,  a  small 
amount  of  money  can  be  made  to  go  farther  in  appear- 
ances here,  than  anvwhere  else  in  the  home.  So  many 
pretty  things  are  quite  inexpensive,  and  so  many  con- 
veniences can  be  made  that  cost  little  more  than  one's 
time,  that  bed-rooms  need  never  be  destitute  of  orna- 
mental toilet  articles  and  foamy  draperies  of  lace  or 
mull,  which  are  always  lovel^^  in  their  purity  if  they  are 
cheap. 

If  there  is  abundant  means,  of  course  elegant  bed- 
room sets  will  take  the  place  of  the  common  articles,  and 
curtains  and  lambrequins  will  supplant  the  cheap 
draperies;  but  in  either  case  the  most  essential  thing  in 
furnishing  a  guest  chamber  is  to  provide  for  eve?'y  iws- 
.^/6/e  >iee(/ of  Your  ofuest. 


250  SUCCESS    IN    FARMING. 

Mrs.  M.  C.  Hoi  bridge,  of  La  Salle  Conuty,  Illinois,  in 
an  essay  on  the  "Duties  of  Hostess  on  a  Farm,"  says: 

No  matter  how  poor  or  how  barren  of  luxury  a  home  maybe, 
a  woman  of  taste  and  energy  will  manage  to  provide  the  neces- 
sities of  a  bed  chamber.  She  will  make  a  toilet  table  of  a  dry 
goods  box  and  an  old  sheet.  She  will  sell  rags  and  buy  a  tin 
wash-basin  and  an  old  pitcher  to  go  with  it.  She  Avill  take  in 
washing  or  make  shirts  to  get  means  to  provide  a  twentv  cent 
looking-glass,  a  comb,  brush,  soap  and  towels. 

Often  a  guest  is  conducted  to  a  room  with  the  single 
provision  for  comfort — a  bed — softened,  however,  by  the 
soothing  assurance  that  when  they  get  able  they  are 
going  to  furnish  the  room  nicely.  Feeling  that  the  dust 
and  cinders  and  general  moil  of  travel  are  clinging  to 
her  garments  and  person,  she  must  violate  her  innate 
sense  of  propriety  by  retiring  unwashed;  and  in  the 
morning,  with  every  nerve  tingling  at  the  outrage,  she 
must  don  her  "  other  dress,"  with  its  soft  delicate  laces 
to  be  soiled  by  the  process,  and  go  down  to  finish  her 
toilet  as  best  she  can  at  the  back  door,  in  presence  ot" 
the  family,  taking  turns  with  them  in  washing,  comb- 
ing, etc.  We  speak  plainly  of  this  matter  not  that  we 
love  the  careless  ones  less  but  that  we  love  their  rank  as 
^'country  people"  more,  and  labor  in  all  kindness  to  da 
them  good.* 

ART  IN  house-kp:eping. 

There  is  no  department  of  labor  where  there  is  a 
wider  range  for  the  display  of  artistic  taste  than  in. 
house-keeping.      Some  regard  house-keeping  as  but  a 


*Mrs.  Aldrich  speaks  of  the  guest  chamber,  but  if  the  boys 
and  girls  of  country  houses  are  to  be  brought  up  so  a.s  to  ap- 
preciate the  comforts  of  refined  living,  the  same  conveniences 
should  be  in  their  rooms.  It  is  a  mistake  made  by  'some 
to  imagine  that  home  folks  can  get  along  any  way.  If  you 
want  the  "  home  folks  "  when  growm  up  to  feel  at  ease  in  the 
houses  of  others  you  need  to  accustom  them  to  such  living  at 
home.  li.  s.  T. 


COUNTRY    HOMES.  251/ 

monotonous  and  continuous  round  of  drudgeiy.  Such 
never  comprehend  the  great  possibilities  of  enjoyment 
in  home  life.  Their  hearts  never  feel  the  thrill  of  rap- 
ture that  comes  from  giving  pleasure  to  others.  If  the 
linen  for  the  family  is  weekly  prepared,  the  necessary 
amount  of  cooking  done  to  gratifj^  the  demands  of 
nature,  the  regular  scrubbing  performed  in  a  vigorous 
manner,  and  all  the  other  hard  work  that  can  be  con- 
jured up  finished,  they  think  that  this  is  all  there  is  of 
life.  If  only  we  could  rub  the  scales  off  such  peoples 
eyes,  and  get  them  to  realize  that  God  gives  us  all  the 
bright  and  beautiful  things  of  creation  with  the  blessed 
privilege  of  combining  them  to  make  our  own  paradise  \ 

If  through  all  the  worlds  history  each  couple,  as  fast 
as  they  were  paired,  had  been  placed  in  a  garden  of 
Eden,  the  race  would  never  have  arrived  at  its  present 
state  of  perfection  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  There 
would  have  been  no  incentive  to  develop  the  latent 
powers  of  mind,  and  woman  could  never  have  enjoyed 
her  highest  honor,  that  of  making  a  home,  for  it  is 
really  and  truly  a  creation  of  hers. 

We  enter  some  homes  where  we  feel  that  an  air  of 
elegance  prevades  everything,  and  wonder  how  people  of 
their  means  can  afford  such  extravagance,  and  begin 
slyly  to  examine  and  analyze  our  surroundings;  and 
very  often  we  find  that  what  at  first  sight  impressed  us^ 
as  the  beauties  of  fairy  land,  are  but  the  ingenious  com- 
binations and  formations  of  an  artistic  taste  aided  by 
very  limited  means.  And  often  we  enter  houses  of  the 
wealthy  expecting  to  be  blessed  with  the  sight  of  rare 
beauty  and  costly  adornings ;  but,  instead,  the  nerves 
are  kept  in  a  constant  quiver  by  the  shocking  glare  and 
contrast  of  colors,  and  the  entire  inhai'mony  of  every  ob- 
ject with  its  neighbor. 


:252  SUCCESS  in  farming. 

Eveiy  tiling  in  a  house — the  color  of  the  wall  paper, 
the  curtains,  the  carpets,  the  arrangement  of  every  arti- 
cle from  the  books  on  the  table  to  the  adjustment  of  the 
furniture — conduce  to  please  or  discomfort  the  inmates. 
We  do  not  always  realize  how  much  little  things  have 
to  do  with  our  happiness. 

A  just  conception  of  the  ''eternal  fitness  of  things" 
;gives  a  systematic  whole  that  charms  and  pleases  the 
iDcholder.  This  may  be  found  in  the  homes  of  the  poor 
.us  well  as  those  of  the  rich.  It  consists  in  the  appro- 
priating and  harmonizing  of  the  materials  which  are 
tstrewn  around  every  country  home. 

What  a  blessing  to  the  toiling  millions  that  all  the 
'beauty  and  happiness  are  not  shut  up  in  the  parlors  of 
the  wealthv. 

The  tired  mother  may  say  that  she  has  not  tima^to 
study  the  artistic  arrangement  of  things  in  reference  to 
shape,  color  etc:-  rliet  her  set  the  little  girls  at  the 
lighter  parts  of  work  and  they  will  veiy  soon  learn  what 
<'olors  look  i)rettiest  together,  when  once  their  minds  are 
directed  to  the  subject.  Even  a  dish  of  fruit  on^  the 
table  in  the  dining  room  ma}^  be  arranged  to  be  "  a  thing 
of  beauty."  A  white  fringed  doily  laid  on  a  bright 
■spread,  and  the  fruit  dish  set  on  this  heaped  with  shiny 
golden,  red  and  green  apples  laid  in  with  studied  care 
In  reference  to  color,  combined  with  other  fruits  in  their 
iseason,  peaches,  pears,  and  some  luscious  clusters  of 
grapes,  make  as  nice  an  ornament  as  a  costly  basket  of 
wax  fruits.  But  let  the  mind  once  turn  to  this  matter 
rand  harmony  will  seem  to  come  intuitively. 

A  small  outlay  in  ivies  adds  a  grace  to  windows  and 
tarched  door-ways  as  nothing  else  can.  The  fragrance 
•of  a  heliotrope,  a  bunch  of  sweet  violets,  or  a  box  of 
mignonette,  gives  to  a  room    an   ambrosial    atmosphere 


woman's  work  on  thk  fakm.  25.^ 

and  charms  the  senses  with  their  sweet  odors.  All  these 
and  a  thousand  other  little  things  are  but  atoms  con- 
sidered apart,  but  it  is  their  sum  that  makes  up  the- 
delightfully  pleasant  country  home. 


WOMAN'S  WORK  ON  THE  FARM. 

BY  A  LADY  FRIEND. 

There  is  scarcel}^  any  other  occupation  where  the  work 
of  husband  and  wife  run  so  nearl}^  on  the  same  line  as  in 
that  of  the  farmer,  and  there  should  be  that  oneness  of 
purpose  that  gives  perfect  harmony.  Where  such  a 
state  of  feeling  exists,  each  will  be  anxious  to  lightcDi 
the  burdens  of  the  other. 

As  it  is  the  province  of  the  farmer  to  look  after  the  de- 
tails of  his  farm,  so  should  his  "  help-meet"  look  well  to 
the  ways  of  her  household,  eating  not  the  bread  of  idle 
ness.  He  cultivates  the  ground,  and  from  its  abundant 
fullness  she  is  provided  with  the  fine  wheat  and  corn,, 
his  flocks  arcl  herds  suppl}^  the  meat,  his  well  fed  cows 
the  milk,  his  garden  and  orchard  the  vegetables  and 
fruits.  It  is  hers  to  make  such  use  of  these  luxuries 
that  her  table  shall  be  furnished  with  well  cooked  food, 
and  the  surplus  so  carefully  looked  after  that  nothing' 
shall  be  lost  or  wasted.  It  is  quite  an  art  to  gather  up 
the  remnants  and  present  them  in  new  form.  B}^  rem- 
nants we  do  not  of  course  mean  the  bits  left  upon  the 
plates.  The  bones  from  a  roast,  cracked  and  boiled,  will, 
with  the  addition  of  vegetables  and  flavoring,  make  a  de- 
licious soup.  '  The  meat  that  can  be  trimmed  off  after  it 
it  has  done  duty  as  a  roast,  may  be  hashed  and  heated 
up,  with  gravy  poured  over  toast,  and  3^011  have  a  nice 
"breakfast  dish.     Remnants  of  veal  or  chicken  used  in^ 


2r>4:  SUCCESS    IN    FAKMING. 

croquetts  or  salads  are  frequently  more  relished  tlian 
when  first  prepared  for  the  tal)le.  Every  housekeeper 
should  study  how  she  ean  use  to  the  best  advantage  all 
the  odds  and  ends,  both  of  provisions  and  elothiny*. 
The  waste  in  some  families  wouhl  make  a  liandsome  liv- 
ing for  others. 

As  woman's  domain  is  the  home,  her  highest  aim 
should  be  to  make  it  a  home  in  the  best  sense  of  the 
word,  the  place  above  all  others  that  husband  and  chil- 
dren will  love  and  cherish.  She  may  not  have  the  skill 
or  the  means  to  make  it  a  bower  of  beauty,  but  by  mak- 
ing the  best  use  of  means  at  her  command,  she  can  make 
it  an  abode  of  comfort.  Her  supervision  should  be  from 
garret  to  cellar;  order  and  cleanliness  should  reign 
throughout.  She  must  see  that  each  bed  is  provided 
with  comfortable  clothing,  and  that  all  the  rooms  are 
daily  thrown  open  for  the  admission  of  heaven's  free  air 
iind  sweet  sunshine.  The  clothing  of  the  family-  is  an  im- 
portant consideration.  Suitable  changes  for  the  seasons 
must  be  provided,  and  they  must  be  ready  wdien  needed. 
The  diet  of  the  family^  should  be  most  carefully  studied. 
A  pleasing  variety  arranged  for  from  day  to  day,  and 
such  articles  selected  as  are  wholesome  and  best  suited 
to  their  varied  needs.  There  is  no  one  article  so  essen- 
tial to  the  comfort  of  a  family  as  good  bread,  and  no 
housekeeper  should  be  satisfied  until  she  has  attained 
the  art  of  making  it.  The  ability  to  make  good  butter 
is  another  accomplishment  that  every  farmer's  wife 
should  possess,  and  in  these  days  when  so  much  Is  writ- 
ten on  the  subject,  and  there  are  so  many  opportunities 
for  learning  how  it  is  done,  there  can  be  no  excuse  for 
ignorance  in  this  branch  of  woman's  work. 

Perhaps  there  might  come  up  the  much  discussed 
question,  Is  it  woman's   work   to  milk?     In   general  I 


woman's  avokk  on  the  farm.  255 

lyould  say  no.  Her  sphere  is  the  house,  and  here  she 
can  find  employment  for  all  her  time. 

While  woman  should  study  in  every  way  to  lighten 
her  burdens,  she  should  try  to  do  everything  well. 
*-Work  well  done  is  twice  done"  is  a  maxim  the  truth 
of  which  is  often  verified  in  our  own  experience.  A  sys- 
tematic arrangement  of  work,  giving  the  most  important 
duties  the  first  place  on  the  list,  is  a  great  help;  and 
there  is  perhaps  no  better  way  to  make  our  burdens  easy 
to  bear  that  to  cultivate  a  spirit  of  cheerfulness.  The 
moral  influence  of  such  a  spirit  in  the  household  is  of 
priceless  value,  and  if  it  entered  into  our  every  day- 
duties  how"  much  that  we  now  count  monotonous  drud- 
gery might  become  a  source  of  positive  pleasure. 

In  these  days  it  is  possible  in  most  of  our  farming 
communities  to  hire  help,  and  it  is  mistaken  economy 
for  the  wife  to  overtax  her  strength  by  trying  to  do 
everything  herself.  If  means  are  wanting  to  pay  the 
added  expense  of  a  house-servant,  let  her  try  her  inge- 
nuity b}"  devising  some  way  of  increasing  the  income. 
The  husband  might  add  one  or  two  cows  to  his  herd, 
the  wife  enlarge  her  flock  of  poultry  and  give  it  better 
<iare,  or  cultivate  some  of  the  small  fruits  and  sell  in  the 
neighboring  markets.  In  this  way  she  may  take  recrea- 
tion in  the  open  air  and  add  to  her  health  and  good 
spirits  as  well  as  to  the  contents  of  her  purse. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  part  of  woman's  work  is 
training  the  children.  In  infancy  they  are  her  especial 
charge;  as  they  develop  into  restless  childhood  they 
must  be  carefully  watched,  that  evil  does  not  creep  in. 
Employment  must  be  given,  and  that  of  a  useful  kind 
is  usually  the  most  entertaining.  A  spirit  of  helpful- 
ness should  be  early  encouraged.  For  the  present  it 
will  doubtless  seem  easier  for  the  mother  to  perform  the 


256 


SUCCESS    IN    FARMINCr. 


prescribed  tasks,  but  in  this  slie  is  educating  her  child, 
and  the  benefit  to  her  will  come  perhaps  after  many 
days.  No  matter  how  many  servants  are  kept,  she 
should  regard  it  as  a  religious  duty  to  teach  her  daugh- 
ters habits  of  industry  and  economy,  and  to  train  them 
in  all  that  pertains  to  good  housewifery.  The  sons,  too, 
should  be  taught  habits  of  order  and  a  due  consideration 
for  the  comforts  of  others.  In  this  way  they  will  be 
fitted  for  making  pleasant  homes  of  their  own  and  saved 
from  the  trials  and  disappointments  that  will  come  to 
those  who  have  not  been  thus  fortunate  in  their  train- 
ing. 

From  the  mother  naturally  comes  the  moral  and  re 
fining  influences,  and  her  own  words  and  conduct  should 
be  so  carefully  guarded  that  the  children  shall  lea'"n 
from  her  example  lessons  of  purity  that  shall  enoblc 
their  characters,  refine  their  manners,  and  tit  them  for 
usefulness.  "Then  shall  her  children  rise  up  and  call 
her  blessed;  her  husband  also,  and  he  praiseth  her." 


NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  TO  AN  Ai'BE. 


2    byl     . 

..  21,780 

5    by 3     ... 

.     2,904 

14bvl4  .... 

222- 

2Jbyl     .. 

..  17,424 

5    by  4    ... 

.     2,178 

15  by  15  .... 

193 

2^  by  2    . 

,.     8,712 

5    by 5    ... 

.     1,741 

IB  by  16  .... 

170 

8    by2    .. 

..     7,200 

6    bye     ... 

.     1,220 

]6U^yl6^.... 

160 

3    by2*  .. 

..     5,808 

6Jby6J  ... 

.     ],031 

17  byl7  .... 

150 

3    by3    . 

..     4,840 

7    by  7     ... 

888 

18by]8  .... 

134 

4    byl     .. 

..  10,890 

8    by  8     ... 

.        680 

]9bvl9  .... 

120 

4    by2    .. 

..     5,445 

9    by 9    ... 

537 

20bv20  .... 

108 

4    by3     .. 

..     3,630 

10  by  10  ... 

436 

25  by  25  .... 

60 

4    by4    . 

..     2,722 

11  by  11  ... 

360 

30  by  30  .... 

48 

h    byl     .. 

..     8,712 

12  by  12  ... 

.        302 

33  by  33  .... 

40 

6    by2    .. 

..     4,356 

13  by  13  ... 

.        257 

FINIS. 


